SECTION I

Frameworks for Understanding Women’s Concerns and Gender Issues – Pathways to Reordering Gender Relationships

1

The Meaning of Gender1

Outline

•  Introduction: Sayings and Titles to Ponder

•  What is Sex and What is Gender

•  Sex and Gender: Two Key Questions and Arguments (Variabilities in the Conception and Practice of Gender)

•  Gender Connotes Hierarchy

•  Gender and Social Injustice

•  The Link to Medicine

Introduction: Sayings and Titles to

women, and boys and men in specific socio-Ponder

historical contexts.

•   Obinrin bii okunrin! (A woman who acts like a

•  Gender refers to social attributes that are man, or a woman who is like a man!).

learned or acquired during socialization as a

•   “Male daughters, female husbands”  ( Amadiume, member of a given community.  Because these 1987).

attributes are learned behaviours, they can,

•  “One is not born, but rather becomes, woman”

and they may change over time.

(Simone de Beauvoir, 1949).

•  Gender therefore refers to the socially given attributes, roles, activities, responsibilities and What is Sex and What is Gender

needs connected to being men (masculinity)

•  Sex refers to the biological differences between and being women (femininity) in a given

men and women, or male and female, which

society, at a given time, and as a member are universal and do not change.

of a specific community within that society

•  Jackson and Scott (2003) wrote that

(UNDP, 2001).

Oakley (1972), who borrowed from Stoller

•  According to Jackson and Scott (2003), (1968) “defined sex as the anatomical and Simone de Beauvoir’s classic  The second physiological characteristics which signify sex (1949) laid the foundation for feminist biological maleness and femaleness, and

analysis of gender when she said, “one is not gender as socially constructed masculinity and femininity” (p. 9).

born, but rather becomes, woman.”  Beauvoir

•

thus distinguished the social character of Gender means those roles, responsibilities, and expectations that are  ascribed to girls and womanhood from biological femaleness.

1   I facilitated this session at the 5-day short course organized by the University of Medical Sciences (UNIMED), Ondo, in collaboration with the Centre of Excellence in Reproductive Health Innovation (CERHI) on 12th March 2018.

The theme of the 5-day course was Understanding gender, rights, cultural and ethical issues – Implications for reproductive health and development.

3

4     Women, Gender Relations and Social Justice: Teaching, Learning and Identity Politics

•  Stoller, made the point that masculinity and

•  It would appear that the causal relationship femininity are products not of biology but of that essentialists wish to establish between the social, cultural and psychological attributes sex and gender is actually ‘habitus’, a term acquired through the process of becoming a popularized by Pierre Bourdieu.

man or a woman in a particular society at a

•  Habitus is the dominant mode of conduct, particular time.

taste, and feeling among members of particular

•  If we try to synthesize the meaning of sex groups, even if they are unconscious of the and gender, we will arrive at Butler’s (1990) fact that they share these traits with members position that, “there is a natural or biological of their group.  The English expression of female who is subsequently transformed

“Habitus” is  second nature,  which means,  an into a socially subordinate ‘woman’, with the acquired tendency that has become instinctive consequence that ‘sex’ is to nature or ‘the raw’, (Mennel, 1994).

as gender is to culture or ‘the cooked’” (p. 37).

•  Oloruntimehin (1998) indicated that the The second  argument, which is social family, religion, schools and the mass media constructionism, is that whatever nature gives is teach children and adults to learn and

mediated by society – that society forms, builds, accept their expected and ‘proper’ roles

moulds, delineates, interprets and explains.

in society. Men are taught to be dynamic, Therefore, the character traits, behaviours and strong, domineering, authoritarian, powerful, roles of females and males are not transcontextual competitive, etc., while women are taught and transhistorical.

to be gentle, submissive, dependent, docile,

•  Stanley (2003), like Amadiume (1987),

weak, helpless, etc. Whenever men and

Weitzman (1975) and Mead (1935) provided

women and children behave contrary to their evidence showing variations in gender roles expected roles, they are treated as deviants, and psychological traits between cultures and and punished.

within a culture over time.

•  The concepts of sex and gender therefore Sex and Gender: Two Key Questions

enable us to think of masculinity and femininity and Arguments

as historically and culturally variable rather

•  The questions which often arise from a than fixed by nature.

discussion of sex and gender, which Stanley (2003) captures aptly are:

Examples of Variabilities in the

1.  Does ‘sex’ (our ‘maleness’ or ‘femaleness’, Conception and Practice of Gender,

the biological basis of sex differentiation) Pre-Colonialism/Pre-Modernity

cause ‘gender’ (the culturally ascribed

•  Let us take examples from Ifi Amadiume’s notions of ‘femininity’ and ‘masculinity’)?

study of Nnobi, currently in Idemili South 2.   Is gender a social construction and to Local Government of Anambra State, Nigeria.

what extent is it a social construction?

Amadiume described a flexible gender system

•  Responses to these questions pitch two key and the flexibility of Igbo gender construction arguments.

during the pre-colonial period (pre-1900).

•  If a wealthy man has no son who will take The first argument is biological determinism/

over his large farm and  obi  and   has no close biological essentialism (the biology is destiny relatives, he could recall his daughter from her argument); this is the argument that the social marital home, so she would take residence in roles and psychological attributes of females and his home as a male.  She would then have the males in relation to a whole range of behaviours status of a son and would be able to inherit and personality traits are biologically determined.

his property.  It is expected that a father

The Meaning of Gender     5

would invite members of his patrilineage and

•  As Weitzman (1975) observed, “physical announce his decision.  Amadiume referred to strength is almost irrelevant in modern society.

such women as “male daughters.”

Certainly, an industrial society does not give

•  In addition, first daughters, barren women, its highest rewards of money, power and

rich widows, wives of rich men and successful prestige on the basis of physical strength” (p.

female farmers and traders could marry

106).

‘wives’.  Amadiume referred to the women as

•  Examples have also been cited of studies of

“female husbands.”

life histories of persons who are intersexual

•  In Yorubaland, pre-colonialism, there were (they used to be called hermaphrodites, a female  obas, such that the throne and decision-term that is now contested as impossible).

making were not the exclusive preserve of The results showed that in virtually all

men.

cases, the sex of assignment (therefore of rearing) proved dominant in those who were

•  Weitzman (1975) and Stanley (2003) recorded assigned one sex at birth and were later found that Margaret Mead’s study of three New

to belong biologically (genetically, gonadally, Guinea tribes provides evidence of cross-hormonally) to the opposite sex.

cultural variation in assigned sex roles and personality traits. Mead found that the

•  In making the case against the assumed link Arapesh regarded both men and women as

between female hormones and women’s

cooperative, unaggressive and responsive to absence from high-level jobs, an example was the needs of others; characteristics normally cited of the Soviet Union in the early 1970s, labelled as feminine or maternal.  Among

where women comprised 33% of the engineers the Mundugumor, she found both men and

and 75% of the doctors (Bem & Bem, 1970

women to be aggressive, unresponsive and

cited in Weitzman, 1975).

individualistic; traits usually regarded as masculine traits.

Gender Connotes Hierarchy

“It’s a girl!”

•  Neither the Arapesh nor the Mundugumor

“I am a boy!”

ascribed contrasting personality characteristics These are the tags Judith Thurman’s aunt saw to men and women.

on babies (including Judith) in the nursery of

•  In the third society that Mead studied, the hospital where Judith was born (see Judith the Tchambuli, there was a reversal of the Thurman’s introduction to Simone de Beauvoir’s typical sex roles found in Western cultures.

The second sex, 1949).

The Tchambuli women were dominant,

•  For practical and political purposes, and impersonal and managing, while the men were for theoretical engagements, the issue with emotionally dependent and less responsible

‘gender’ is not the differences in gender roles than women.

and responsibilities; the issue is that gender

•  From the assumption that women are

signifies a hierarchical relationship between

‘naturally’ weaker and less aggressive than men and women.

men, the belief was held that women are not

•  This hierarchical relationship results in rela-fit for war.  However, in pre-colonial societies tionships of power that are skewed in favour such as Dahomey, women were great warriors.

of men.

Another example was Queen Amina of Zazzau

•  Through societal structures, institutions, (http://www.africanfeministforum.com/

practices and enduring attitudes, when com-queen-amina-of-zaria-nigeria/). Even in post-pared with boys and men, girls and women

colonial societies around the World, women do not have access to power resources and are have actively engaged in warfare.

usually unable to use opportunities and power

6     Women, Gender Relations and Social Justice: Teaching, Learning and Identity Politics resources when they have them, because

of the forefathers; too weak to partake in key of structural, institutional and internalized political decisions; economic parasites, etc., barriers.

such that this is the socially subordinate adult

•  Today in Nigeria, most females in most female human being.

cultures are gendered as women, and the

•  This negative and demeaning perception of females that are gendered as men, such as the woman (the person the society has cooked found in Ifi Amadiume’s M ale daughters, female into a woman) leads to social injustice, and husbands (1987) are few.

results from social injustice.

•  We do not want to forget, of course, that

•  Social injustice or discrimination includes the British colonialists brought their own minimizing, trivializing, and non-recognition conception of human nature and women’s

of the issues, concerns, experiences, interests nature, which was derived from the scriptures and needs of individuals and groups who are to Nigeria (Fashina, 1998).

either in the minority or who are not in the

•  However, fifty-seven (57) years after the mainstream of decision-making processes or end of formal colonialism, with Christianity power.

and Islam being omnipresent in the polity

•  Social injustice involves not taking account and competing for the souls and hearts of of the values, beliefs, interests, and needs of Nigerians, in the face of glaring economic minorities because such are not norms.  This changes that have affected many women

would usually have a negative impact on

and men, and also in the context of the

the well-being of those concerned.  A lack of existence of formal international declarations attention to the values, interests and needs of of equality of all persons, of all races, gender, those who are not in the mainstream shows religion, etc.  (Mejiuni, 2013) the hierarchical contempt for the persons concerned.

relationship between men and women persists

•  Discrimination includes the attribution of and is unchanging.

characteristics to individuals and groups2,

•  The hierarchical relationship subsists through characteristics, which, when socially and patriarchy; the rule of the fathers, a traditional institutionally applied to groups of individuals, form of authority vested in men as heads

define their rights and duties, which then of families (Marshall, 1998). Patriarchy is affect the quality of their lives (Wiley, 1994).

any form of systematic male domination

•  Discrimination also involves unequal oppor-

(Mckenzie, 1993).

tunities to access resources (usually stemming

•  The hierarchical relationship between men from social and institutional(ized) prejudices), and women (gender relations) often results and unequal and unfair distribution of rights in social injustice.

and resources.  Finally, to discriminate is to dominate: to insist on prioritizing the interests Gender and Social Injustice

and needs of a group over those of others, by

•  A woman (or a female human person that fiat.  Such prioritization would usually not has been cooked into an adult female human have a rational basis; it is usually steeped in person), in our society’s consciousness, carries unconscious or hidden bias (prejudices) and with her a lot of baggage – the object of subsequently, explicitly enforced through desire; can’t think; too dirty for the shrines subtle or overt exercise of power.

2  Stereotyping/prejudicing (preconceived opinion or bias against or in favour of a thing or a person) could be positive or negative, but it is usually negative.  It is usually a negative or an unfavourable attitude towards a group or its members. Prejudice is characterized by stereotyped beliefs that are not tested against reality, but rather have to do with a person’s own feelings and attitudes.  It is inherently unjust.

The Meaning of Gender     7

The Link to Medicine

Conclusion

•  MacLean and Ross (2008) wrote that an

•  An understanding of gender matters for area of health care delivery which is usually those who study, research and practice

“hidden from casual observation or critical medicine, those who administer health care examination is the historic neglect of research infrastructure and services, and those who on women’s health relative to men’s.”

access health care services.

•  They stated that:

•  The patients who present in doctors’ clinics Women have been excluded from clinical

and those who refuse to, or are unable to, research samples, ostensibly because of

provide qualitative data to support the need concerns that they may be pregnant or

to centre gender as a social determinant of become pregnant during clinical trials, or health.

that women’s hormonal cycles will interact

•  Therefore, in medicine, gender matters.

with treatment protocols. Yet, medical

protocols and treatments based on all-male Thanks for listening!

clinical trials and samples are prescribed for women. Although in 1986, the National References and Further Reading

Institutes of Health in the United States Amadiume, I. (1987).  Male daughters and female issued a new policy requiring justification husbands: Gender and sex in an African society.

for excluding women from federally funded London: Zed Books Ltd.

clinical research, the new guidelines were Beauvoir, Simone de (1949).  The second sex.  New not integrated into the grants application York: Vantage Books.

process until 1991 (http://www.sage-

British Council Nigeria (2012).  Gender in Nigeria ereference.com/gender/Article_n204.html).

Report 2012: Improving the lives of girls and

•  Nine (9) years after MacLean and Ross wrote women in Nigeria. …: British Council Nigeria that the historic exclusion of women in clinical Butler, J. (1990).  Gender trouble. London: research samples was a hidden fact, Stefanick Routledge, Chapman & Hall, Inc.

(2017), called attention to the influences of Crook, M. (1995).  My body: Women speak out about rampant research bias, lopsided science, and their health care. New York: Insight Books.

sex and gender biases on medical diagnosis Fashina, O. (1998).  Some reflections on human and treatment for everyone.  Citing examples nature and sexual oppression. Paper presented of the specific forms of cancers, heart problems, at the WARSHE Training Workshop titled,

mental illness, thyroid autoimmune illnesses, Help for Victims of Rape, Sexual Harassment rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis and Sexual Exploitation, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.

which affect women and men differently, she Jackson, S. & Scott, S. (Eds.) (2003).  Introduction: stressed that the imperative of precision and The gendering of sociology. In S. Jackson & S.

personalized medicine requires that clinicians/

Scott (Eds.),  Gender: A sociological reader (pp.

scientists take account of variability in genes, 1-26).  London: Routledge Taylor & Francis environment and lifestyle for each person.

Group.

•  Stefanick also asserted that medical studies MacLean, V. M. & Ross, K. W. (2008). Health care relied heavily on men or male animals in

systems, hidden/informal.  Encyclopedia  of the past, which slowed progress in women’s gender and society. …: SAGE Publications.

health care.  Although researchers are finally Retrieved May 14, 2010 from http://www.

improving the mix, women and female animals sage-ereference.com/gender/Article_n204.

are still in the minority.  Parity is needed because html

many illnesses affect women differently than Marshall, G. (1998).  Oxford dictionary  of sociology.

men. Women often respond differently to

Oxford: Oxford University  Press.

treatments as well (Stefanick, 2017).

8     Women, Gender Relations and Social Justice: Teaching, Learning and Identity Politics Mckenzie, L. (1993).  On our feet: Taking steps to Ife, Nigeria, Between 7th and 9th October, challenge women’s oppression. A handbook 1998.

of gender and popular education workshops.

Stanley, L. (2003).  Should ‘sex’ really be ‘gender’

Bellville, SA: Centre for Adult and Continuing

– or ‘gender’ really be ‘sex’. In S. Jackson & S.

Education, University of the Western Cape.

Scott (Eds.),  Gender: A sociological reader (pp.

Mead, M. (1935).  Sex and temperament in three 31-41). London: Routledge Taylor & Francis primitive societies. New York: William Morrow.

Group.

Mejiuni, O. (2013).  Women and power: Education, Stefanick, M. L. (2017, September). Not just for religion and identity. Dakar: Council for the men.  Scientific American, 52-57.

Development of Social Science Research in United Nations Development Programme (2001).

Africa (CODESRIA).

Learning and information pack: Gender analyses.

Mennel, S. (1994). The formation of we-images: New York: UNDP Learning Resources Centre

A process theory. In C. Calhoun (Ed.),  Social OHR/BOM.

theory and the politics of identity (pp. 175-

Weitzman, L. J. (1975). Sex-role socialization. In J.

197)   Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.

Freeman (Ed.),  Women: A  feminist perspective Oloruntimehin, O. (1998). The sociological (pp. 105-144). Palo Alto, California: Mayfield perspective of sexual abuse and violence.

Publishing Company.

Paper presented at the WARSHE Training

Wiley, N. (1994).  The politics of identity in Workshop titled: Help for victims of rape, American history.  In C. Calhoun (Ed.),  Social sexual harassment and sexual exploitation , theory and the politics of identity (pp. 131-held at the Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-149). Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.

2

The Reconstruction of Patriarchal Traditionalisms and Their Effects on Women’s Rights in Nigeria1

Outline

•  Opening: The Key Questions/Issues

•  What We Hear and What We Do Not Hear About ‘Our Culture’

•  What is ‘Culture’, What is ‘Tradition’, and What is ‘Custom’

•  What is ‘Our Culture’ and ‘Our tradition’, and What is Not

•  When Does the Discourse Around ‘Culture’ and ‘Tradition’ Become Prevalent

•  Whose Interest Does the Discourse Serve

•  The Implications of the Discourse of Culture and Tradition for Women’s Rights in Nigeria

•  What Should We (Self-Identified Feminists) Do

•  Which Cultures and Traditions Ennoble and Enable, and Which Ones Disable and are ‘Dead Hands’

•  Conclusion

Opening: The Key Questions/Issues

What We Hear and What We Do Not

•  What we hear about ‘our culture’ and what Hear About ‘Our Culture’

we do not hear about ‘our culture’.

We usually hear that:

•  What is ‘culture’, what is ‘tradition’, and what

•  It is not in our culture for a woman to decide is ‘custom’?

she does not want to marry, or she wouldn’t

•  What is ‘our culture’ and ‘our tradition’, and have more than a child or a certain number what is not?

of children;

•  When does the discourse around ‘culture’ and

•  It is not in our culture for women to contest

‘tradition’ become prevalent?

for top leadership positions in organizations/

•  Whose interest does the discourse serve?

institutions that have male and female members;

•  The implications of the discourse of culture

•  It is not in our culture for women to lead some and tradition for women’s rights in Nigeria.

Christian and Muslim congregations;

•  What should we (self-identified feminists)

•  It is not in our culture for women to expose do?

certain parts of their bodies, or ‘dress indecently’;

•  Which cultures and traditions ennoble and and

enable, and which ones disable and are ‘dead

•  Feminism is not part of our culture.

hands’?

1  I presented this paper at the 1st Convening of the Nigerian Feminist Forum (NFF) as a panellist at the plenary session on Feminism and Transforming Lives on 26th January 2008 in Abuja, Nigeria.

9

10     Women, Gender Relations and Social Justice: Teaching, Learning and Identity Politics We usually do not hear that:

•  We know that there are cultures within larger

•  It is not in our culture that men should beat cultures – sub-cultures.

their wives;

•  There are knowledge, belief and value systems

•  It is not in our culture that men should rape that result from particular historical, socio-women and children;

economic and political circumstances.  When

•  It is not in our culture that individuals should these systems become established ways of

misappropriate or better still, steal what thinking and acting (custom) among particular belongs to the collective;

groups within societies/communities, then we refer to them also as cultures.

•  It is not in our culture that adults should consistently behave badly and yet insist that

•  We can talk for example, about the culture of children exhibit exemplary/good character.

giving, the culture of impunity, the culture of violence, the culture of silence, etc.

What is ‘Culture’, What is ‘Tradition’,

•  Tradition is a set of social practices which seek and What is ‘Custom’

to celebrate and inculcate certain behavioural

•  The   Oxford dictionary of sociology (edited norms and values, in the attempts to connect by Gordon Marshall, 1998) provides the

with a real or imagined past, and is usually information that social anthropological ideas associated with widely accepted rituals or other of culture are based to a great extent on the forms of symbolic behaviour (Marshall, 1998).

definition given by Edward Tylor in 1871.

He referred to culture as “a learned  complex What is ‘Our Culture’ and ‘Our

of knowledge, belief, art, morals, law and Tradition’, and What is Not

custom” (p. 137).

Given the preceding explanations, we observe as

•  We note the word  learned.  This is supposed follows:

to show that culture is socially, rather than

•  Some of the traditions and cultures of Nigeria biologically determined.

prior to the colonial experience and the

influences of Christianity and Islam are still

•  The archeological usage of the term culture somewhat well denominated.

separates material culture (artifacts) from the non-material (practices and beliefs) or what

•  However, one suspects that many of the is called the adaptive culture.

people who shape and mould opinions and

lives in Nigeria today do not know those

•  At some point in human history, cultures of traditions and cultures.

groups of people/communities/ societies were studied and then ranked.  At a later stage,

•  Many of those who confuse the Judeo-

cultures were compared and contrasted.

Christian and Islamic traditions with Nigerian For some other scholars, it is thought that cultures (the way we were), pull the argument the concept of culture can provide ways

about culture and are very vocal about it.

of explaining and understanding human

•  But we also have to admit that in the face behaviour, belief systems, values and ideo-of the dynamic nature of culture, and the logies, as well as particularly culturally fact that many Nigerian knowledge systems, specific personality types (Marshall, 1998).

beliefs, arts, morals, laws and customs now

•  It is known that culture is dynamic, it changes reflect Christian and Islamic influences, our either voluntarily (in order to adapt) or by cultures have changed (perhaps many times) coercion, as it happened to us Nigerians after and we now have relatively new cultures.

the arrival of colonialism, Christianity and Can we then say that those who say it is not in our Islam.

culture to grant women their rights as persons are

The Reconstruction of Patriarchal Traditionalisms ...    11

correct from the point of view of Christianity and our interests and what we believe to be our Islam?

needs and our priorities.

•  The recourse to ‘our culture’ usually limits the When Does the Discourse around

‘Culture’ and ‘Tradition’ become

rights and resources that women can access, Prevalent

and the scope of possibilities that are open to us.

The discourse of culture and tradition become prevalent (like a disease) and heightened when:

•  In addition, apart from limiting the potential

•  Women push for the democratization of

of Nigerian women, the discourse of culture political, economic, religious and social space; and tradition, will institutionalize even more

•  Women talk back (hooks, 1989); and

violations of women’s rights, and the violation of women’s rights will become, indeed, ‘our

•  Women, whether as individuals or as a collective, culture’.

resist physical, verbal, and emotional violence.

So men, and women, but often men, recourse to What should We (Self-Identified

the position of ‘our culture’ and ‘our tradition’ to Feminists) Do

seal the argument, or place a ceiling on the

•  As feminists, we have to define ourselves.

rights that women can and should demand

We have to re(create) and also co-create new

for.

knowledge about whom we are in spite of

culture.

Whose Interest does the Discourse

•  We have to participate actively in shaping the Serve

discourse of culture.

•  The discourse of culture and tradition as it is being presently carried on in our country can

•  We have to dig deep, and seize upon those only serve the interest of patriarchy.2

positive aspects of our indigenous knowledge and cultural practices that affirm women.

•  Because   power is preservative in nature (Mejiuni, 2006), persons who are privileged Which Cultures and Traditions Ennoble

and occupy positions of power in different and Enable, and Which Ones Disable

spheres of life hold on to their own conception and are ‘Dead Hands’

of what constitutes the, or, a Nigerian culture.

•  It is our business to continuously sieve

•  By carrying on the discussion about culture through the discourse of culture and tradition, and tradition in different learning centres/

and what men and women, institutions and

institutions, they impose their own conception organizations do in the name of culture and of Nigerian cultures on us, and their concep-tradition, and determine which ones limit tion of Nigerian cultures and traditions become the potential of women and the range of

our knowledge of and belief about Nigerian possibilities that are open to Nigerian women.

cultures and traditions.

Conclusion

The Implications of the Discourse of

Culture and Tradition for Women’s

As I end this presentation, I urge us to keep this Rights in Nigeria

excerpt from Mary Rogers (1998) in view.  In her

•

discussion of women’s identity, she said: The discourse of culture and tradition define our identity(ies) – who we ought to be, and The projects of selfhood and identity invite often too, who we are, our beliefs and values, us, in sum, to demonstrate the possibilities 2  See for instance, Wilson (2005) for an exploration of the interface of culture and power and the repressive ends to which culture could be directed.

12     Women, Gender Relations and Social Justice: Teaching, Learning and Identity Politics buried under what culture has deemed

identities, their educational attainment and impossible or inconceivable … To secure

political power.  JENDA: A Journal of Culture ourselves and enact our identities in

and African Women Studies, 9,  1-46.

liberated ways requires bringing to the

Rogers, M. (Ed.) (1998),  Contemporary feminist cultural surface what lies buried beneath theory.  USA: McGraw-Hill.

its institutionalized sedimentations … In Wilson, A. L. (2005). Cultural studies. In L.M.

lieu of seizing those challenges, we can

English (Ed.),  International encyclopedia of

remain queued up in the lines of society’s matrix of domination. We can remain what

adult education (pp. 176-180). New York: culture has named us rather than what we

Palgrave Macmillan.

name ourselves (pp. 373-374).

Relevant References After the Fact

References and Further Reading

Mejiuni, O. (2012). International and community Fashina, T. (2001). Women’s rights: teaching based transformative learning.  In E. Taylor &

and learning process in Nigerian tertiary P. Cranton (Eds.),  Handbook of transformative institutions. In S. Jegede, A. Ale, & E.

learning: Theory, research and practice (pp.

Akinsola (Eds.),  Proceedings of the conference 304-319).  San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

on   Nigeria’s tertiary institutions and human Mejiuni, O. (2013).  Women and power: Education, rights (pp. 90-115). Lagos: Committee for religion and identity. Dakar, Senegal: Council The Defence of Human Rights (CDHR).

for the Development of Social Science Research hooks, B. (1989).  Talking back, thinking feminist, in Africa (CODESRIA). Retrieved from http://

thinking black. Boston: South End Press.

www.codesria.org/spip.php?article1777

Marshall, G. (1998).  Oxford dictionary of sociology.

Mejiuni, O. (2017). Sustaining collective Oxford: Oxford University Press.

transformative learning: Informal learning Mejiuni, O. (2005). Identity .   In L. M. English and revisions. In A. Laros, T. Fuhr, & E.

(Ed.),   International encyclopedia of adult

Taylor (Eds.),  Transformative learning meets education (pp. 295-299). New York: Palgrave Bildung: An international exchange (pp. 205-Macmillan.

216). Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense

Mejiuni, O. (2006).   Women are flexible and Publishers B. V.

better managers: The paradox of women’s

3

Religious Fundamentalism, Globalization and Women’s Emancipatory Learning1

Outline

•  Introduction: Some Core Concepts

-  Religion

-  Spirituality

-  Religious Fundamentalism

-  Globalization

•  How Religious Fundamentalism Intersects Globalization to Affect Women’s Rights and Women’s Learning

•  Resistance to Fundamentalism and Violence – The Role of Globalization

•  The Imperative of Spiritually Grounded Emancipatory Pedagogies

•  Conclusion

Introduction: Some Core Concepts

•  In my  study of  how formal education (especially In this presentation, I argue that although reli-higher education), religious teachings and gious fundamentalism and globalization constrain practices and informal learning interface in women’s rights and women’s learning, they can the construction of women’s identities, 68.1%

also be triggers for the transformation of gender of highly literate women (in formal work

identities and women’s emancipatory learning.  I settings); 69.6% of female students in higher begin by exploring the concepts that are central education institutions (HEIs); 91.1% of semi-to my engagement with the theme of this

literate women (in the informal economy); presentation.

39.5% of female apprentices; 31.03% of

highly literate men and 37.5% of male

Religion

students in HEIs made obvious references

•  Religions, according to Bowker (1997) “are to religion in their responses to questions I a constant force for change, despite the fact asked about women’s roles in the private and that they are also, as systems, necessarily the public spheres; women’s civic-political conservative” (p. xxi).

participation; women’s identities; women’s

•  Religion is therefore complex.

experience of violence and the education of women (Mejiuni, 2006c2).  One hundred and

•  It has been estimated that three-quarters of the eight-three (183) women and 61 men drawn

world’s population identify with at least one from Kogi and Oyo States participated in the religion at different times (Bowker, 1997).

study which I carried out in 2004.

1  This is the edited version of the paper I presented at the BAOBAB for Women’s Human Rights National Discussion on Women’s Human Rights and Religion held between 24th and 25th November 2006 in Lekki, Lagos.

2  This is Mejiuni, O. (2006c). “Women are flexible and better managers”: The paradox of women’s identities, their educational attainment and political power.  JENDA: A Journal of Culture and African Women Studies,  9, 1-46.

13

14     Women, Gender Relations and Social Justice: Teaching, Learning and Identity Politics

•  In the same study, I found that the women it3) in the established/organized religions, sampled identified themselves in about 15

some look to their history, others look to ways, but they typically identified themselves native education, and some consider that

first by their gender and character. After the spiritual ideals of justice, service, caring, gender and character, women in the formal cooperation, and dignity of the human person and informal economies defined themselves give meaning (English 2005), while others in terms of their religious identities.  Some look to fundamentalism.

identified themselves first by their religious identities and flaunted their religious identities.

Religious Fundamentalism

•  Is a description of those who return to what What might this tell us about how women

they believe to be the fundamental truth and engage their religious beliefs and how religion, practices of a religion (Bowker, 1997).

in particular, the fundamentalist hue, may impact

•  Some thinkers have suggested that funda-them? We would attempt to answer this question mentalism is a religion of the marginalized.

in the sections that follow.

•  Others think otherwise.  They think it is the  Spirituality

religion of people caught off balance.  It is

•  Refers to an awareness of something greater said that fundamentalist groups often arise in than ourselves.  A sense that we are connected situations where social, cultural and economic to all human beings and to all creation

power is up for grabs, and many arise in post-

(English, 2005) by something or somebody

colonial situations.

greater than ourselves.

•  Karen Brown (1994) indicated that funda-

•  Spirituality has always been in the domain mentalism is the religion of the stressed and of religious groups, which are charged

the disoriented, of those for whom the world with meeting the spiritual needs of humans is overwhelming.  It is the religion of those (English, 2005).

at once seduced and betrayed by the promise

•  At some point however, it was thought that that we human beings can comprehend and

there was a need to distinguish religion from control our world.

spirituality, and so spirituality was thought

•  She averred that, bitterly disappointed by of as the giver of meaning, while religion the politics of rationalized bureaucracies, the was thought of as the giver of rules.  The limitations of science, and the perversions thinking now is that it is better to embrace of industrialization, fundamentalists seek to the intersection of spirituality and religion reject the modern world, while nevertheless (English, 2005), the fact that persons can find holding onto its habits of mind: clarity, spiritual fulfilment in religion.

certitude and control.

•  There is an increasing realization that persons

•  Brown added that at the root of funda-

are always in search of spiritual guidance and mentalism is a failure of nerve in the face of growth, and so when we omit the spiritual the complexity of life, and a decision to make dimension of an adult’s life we ignore the things cleaner and clearer, no matter the cost.

holistic approach to the development of the

•  “The fundamentalism project”, a project of the human person (English, 2005).

American Academy of Arts and Science (https://

•  While many search for meaning (under-

www.amacad.org/project/fundamentalism-

standing the world and our relationship with project), observed that those who belong to 3  To gain an understanding of “meaning making”, see Hunt, C. (2005). Meaning making. In L. M. English (Ed.), International encyclopedia of adult education (pp. 391-395). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Religious Fundamentalism, Globalization and Women’s Emancipatory Learning     15

what might be described as movements

Also, some Muslims make an issue of the need of reaction against modernity “no longer

for women to cover their bodies, including perceive themselves as reeling under the

wearing the full-face veil.

corrosive effects of secular life: on the

•  Fundamentalists, like many men (who will not contrary, they perceive themselves as fighting identify themselves as holding fundamentalist back, and doing so successfully.”

views) have a need to preserve male privilege,

•  What makes fundamentalism problematic, and and so they appeal to the extreme ecclesiastical in some cases, dangerous is the tendency to model of meaning-making in their attempts aggressively defend truths, and this is manifested to hang on to power.   Globalization provides in different kinds and degrees of violence.

them with a fresh reason to control and abuse women, and it is the new weapon with which  Globalization

they control and abuse women.

•  Finger (2005) defined globalization as:

“a movement of economic integration, of

•  By promoting the extreme ecclesiastical cultural homogenization and technological models of meaning-making, fundamentalists uniformization” (p. 269).   It has long historical foreclose discussions around women’s identities, roots, but, as a large-scale phenomenon, it is their roles in the private and the public said to be the product of the past 20 years.

spheres of life, their reproductive rights, and their civic-political participation.

•  The question for scholars and activists especially in the Economic South is: whose

•  Given that many women in Nigeria turn

interest does globalization serve/ who stands to religion in their search for meaning,

to gain more from globalization?

fundamentalists would always have a ready constituency that they can exercise control

•  For fundamentalists, globalization is the over.  We would recall that I had indicated that extreme form of modernity.

over 68.1% of three of the four categories of the women I sampled for my study, earlier cited, How Religious Fundamentalism

referenced their religion or religious beliefs in Intersects Globalization to Affect

their responses to the questions I asked about Women’s Rights and Women’s

women’s roles in the private and the public Learning

spheres; women’s civic-political participation;

•  Fundamentalists are known to be consistent women’s identities; women’s experience of in one respect, and that is the maintenance violence and the education of women

of strong and clear social boundaries.  They are concerned with social order and social

•  Now, religions are cultural systems and control. Given the patriarchal nature of their are therefore powerful educational agents religions, the battles that fundamentalists (Mejiuni, 20064).  So when fundamentalists fight in defense of fundamental ‘truths’ and constrain women’s potentials through

practices of their religions are fought mainly their teachings and practices and violence, around and on women’s lives and bodies.

women learn to do what they are told.  They internalize their oppression, and at times,

•  And so the Christian right in the United they even justify their oppression.  Women States opposes women’s rights to the choice who are not submissive are taught to be

of abortion, and so they murder women and submissive through battery and the ones

doctors to stop abortion (or as they put it, who batter them justify their actions with stop women from murdering unborn babies).

quotations from the Holy Books.  Now, when 4

This is Mejiuni, O. (2006a). Confounding and empowering women through non-formal and informal education? ...

16     Women, Gender Relations and Social Justice: Teaching, Learning and Identity Politics a woman has been battered because she is

their own greater freedom or emancipation in not submissive, some other women then tell the world (Tisdell, 2005).

her that she was battered because she was

•  According to Tisdell (2005), within the field stubborn.5

of education in general and adult education in

•  Because the consequences of fundamentalism particular, the term “emancipatory education”

and violence are grave, they have also resulted is “associated with discourses that specifically in resistance from others.

challenge power relations based on social systems or structures of race, gender, class, Resistance to Fundamentalism and

culture, national origin, religion, sexual Violence – The Role of Globalization

orientation, age or disability, in adult and

•  Fundamentalism and fundamentalist-induced higher education, and in popular education”

violence against women are trigger events (p. 206).

for resistance and women’s emancipatory

•  Given the way religion has been used to learning, and women must seize the moment dominate women, there is a tendency to

to foster emancipatory learning.

advocate secularism in many spheres of life.

•  I recall the outcry that greeted the decision I suspect this will be unrealistic because we that a victim of rape (Bariya Magazu –

have shown that spirituality matters, and that https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/fr/

women try to make meaning through their

node/186342) should be flogged under the

religions.  This is why it is being advocated Islamic legal code in Zamfara state, the role of that persons who work to improve the social BAOBAB and how globalization – specifically status of women should adopt spiritually

information communication technology (ICT), grounded emancipatory pedagogies.

the Internet, brought the law and the social

•  Emancipatory education that is rooted

structure (patriarchy) that spurned it under in spirituality uses religion (or any other scrutiny.

belief system or form of knowing) to create

•  The outcry that greeted her sentencing and knowledge that will enhance commitment to the sentencing of another woman in Katsina community or activist work that seeks to help state6 was resistance against an unjust law people to free their potential and put their that supposedly has its roots in religion.

potential to full use in different spheres of life.

•  Women oriented non-profits should therefore

•  I am not therefore advocating a continuation provide the triggers (discussions, resource of the overt display of religious beliefs such as materials, insight, etc.) that will lead women we have now.  I would rather we have those to critically reflect on what they have been meetings in the universities for example, told are God’s will, women’s roles in the world without the prayers! I worry, like many other and women’s worth.

women (and men) that the prayers and

worship in public places are often performed The Imperative of Spiritually

to confuse people, they are hypocritical.

Grounded Emancipatory Pedagogies

•  Examples abound in both Christianity and

•  Emancipatory education is education that Islam, of how women have used religion or helps individuals and social groups develop

‘witnessing and testifying’ to fight for their new forms of knowledge that will lead to

rights, and I think we should explore this 5

See for instance, Mejiuni, O. (2006b).  ‘Some women are stubborn’: Power, violence against women and the challenges of religion.   CODESRIA BULLETIN, 1 & 2, 38-40.

6

https://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/26/world/facing-death-for-adultery-nigerian-woman-is-acquitted.html

Religious Fundamentalism, Globalization and Women’s Emancipatory Learning     17

option some more, focusing attention on the mobilizing  support for their own efforts.

central theme of the 2 religions – LOVE, and They also use the ICTs to constrain women’s imploring religious leaders to privilege the potential, insisting for example that women transformative aspects of their religions.

ought not partake actively in the public

•  By way of example, when Christian leaders sphere because that is not God’s/Allah’s will for them.  They insist that women’s active (and Muslims too) emphasize submission of participation in the public sphere is a product the wife to the man, and they (especially their of modernity!8

followers) cite lack of submission (or as they say, lack of humility) of women to men as the

•  Those of us who work with women should reason some women are battered, we should clarify our position.  Do we wish to improve let them know that God actually demanded

women’s condition, or do we wish to

a greater sacrifice from men when he asked cause fundamental changes, for example,

that men should love their wives as Christ undermine patriarchy and all other structures loved the Church.  When Muslim leaders (and that constrain women?  I am not saying that Christians too) make a fuss about women’s it is not important that we help women earn dressing, and their followers then use this as a living or have better health.  My point is a justification for rape and sexual harassment, that so long as patriarchy remains in place, we should let them know that in the Qur’an, women will continue to face fresh health

the Holy Prophet actually implored all men challenges such as those posed by the Human and women to lower their gaze and safeguard Immuno Deficiency Virus /Acquired Immune

Deficiency Syndrome (HIV/AIDs) pandemic.

their chastity.  He was actually talking about In addition, the economic gains that we

self-restraint and discipline.

think they have made from improvement in

•  It is important that we let women know that it their earning power will not be invested in is the knowledge constructed and privileged profit-yielding ventures because men will by the powerful that becomes the norm7,

ensure that they spend such on the family.

and that is what has happened in the cases Investment is what moves the economy, and of the oft-quoted parts of the Bible and the it determines production.

Qur’an that men and women, especially

fundamentalists, use to control women.

Conclusion

•  We must not abandon the churches and the

•  We have to help women to work at the habits mosques (and our traditional religions).  We of questioning, of reflecting critically on their need to work more within those structures, experiences and those of others.  This should through women’s organizations for example.

not be about picking quarrels, it should be about knowing why things are the way they

•  We have to note and expose the inconsistencies are and understanding how they became

in the stance of fundamentalists.  Now, we what they are.

have noted that fundamentalism is a reaction

•  In addition, if we cause women to challenge to the failed promises of modernity, yet, the status quo and fundamentalisms, we must fundamentalists show ambivalence towards

prepare them for the pains that may result modernity.  They condemn modernity, yet

from such.  Fundamentalists step up violence they use products of modernity (ICTs) for when they are challenged.

7

See for instance, Alvin Gouldner (1970) cited in Marshall (1998).  He averred that “Power is, among other things, the ability to enforce one’s moral claims.  The powerful can thus conventionalize their moral defaults” (p. 520).

8

See for instance, some religious leaders and male students’ position on women’s civic-political participation in Mejiuni, O.  (2006c),   “Women are flexible and better managers”: The paradox of women’s identities, their educational attainment and political power.  JENDA: A Journal of Culture and African Women Studies, 9,  1-46.

18     Women, Gender Relations and Social Justice: Teaching, Learning and Identity Politics

•  On a final note, we also need to address adult education (pp. 391-395). New York: the flip side of globalization because of the Palgrave Macmillan.

way it affects our economy and because it Marshall, G. (1998).  Oxford dictionary of sociology.

has provided impetus for fundamentalists to Oxford: Oxford University Press.

attack women.

Mejiuni, O. (2006a). Confounding or empowering

•  I congratulate BAOBAB for the good works women through non-formal and informal

she has done in her ten years of existence, education? Religious leaders in Ibadan and and I thank you all for listening

Lokoja, Nigeria, on knowledge that matters.

In L. English, & J. Groen (Eds.), The 25th Annual Conference Proceedings of the

References and Further Reading

Canadian Association for the Study of Adult Bowker, J. (Ed.). (1997).  The Oxford dictionary Education (CASAE) (pp. 161-166). Toronto: of world religions. Oxford: Oxford University York University.

Press (p. xxi).

Mejiuni, O. (2006b). ‘Some women are stubborn’: Brown, K. M. (1994). Fundamentalism and the Power, violence against women and the

control of women. In J. S. Hawley (Ed.),

challenges of religion.  CODESRIA BULLETIN, Fundamentalism and gender. New York: 1 & 2, 38-40.

Oxford University Press. Retrieved from

Mejiuni, O.   (2006c).   “Women are flexible and http://www. questia.org

better managers”: The paradox of women’s

English, L. M. (2005). Spirituality. In L. M. English identities, their educational attainment and (Ed.),   International encyclopedia of adult political power.   JENDA: A Journal of Culture education (pp. 603-605). New York: Palgrave and African Women Studies, 9,  1-46.

Macmillan.

Tisdell, E. J. (2005). Emancipatory education. In Finger, M. (2005). Globalization. In L. M. English L. M. English (Ed.),  International encyclopedia (Ed.),   International encyclopedia of adult of adult education (pp. 205-210). New York: education (pp. 269-273). New York: Palgrave Palgrave Macmillan.

Macmillan.

Hunt, C. (2005). Meaning making. In L. M.

English (Ed.),  International encyclopedia of

4

Constructing Feminine and Masculine Identities1

Outline

•  Understanding the Notion of Identity

-  Sex

-  Gender

-  The Notion of Identity

-  The Notion of Collective Identity (Habitus and Natural)

-  The Notion of Self/Individual/Personal Identity

-  The Notion of Gender Identity

-  The Discourse of Identity: Three Traditions

-  Women’s Self-Definition

-  The Notion of Multiplicity of Identities

-  Definition by Others: Who We are and Who It is Valuable to Be

-  The Politics of Identity and the Politics of Gender Identity

•  The Processes of Identity Construction

-  Sex-Role Socialization

-  Informal Learning

-  Identities Can be Used to Either Empower or Disempower Women

-  What Should We Do

Understanding the Notion of Identity

we begin by trying to understand the concepts of Given that our focus is on understanding how sex and gender.

feminine and masculine identities are constructed, 1  This is the edited version of the material which I used to facilitate the module entitled Constructing Feminine and Masculine Identities, at the July-August 2018 session of the Centre for Gender and Social Policy Studies, Obafemi Awolowo University’s Bespoke Residential Certificate Courses (BRCC).  The module comprised two topics:

“Understanding the notion of identity”; and “The processes of identity construction.”  I had presented the frameworks of this facilitation material at the 1st Ekiti State Gender Summit held in Ado-Ekiti in November 2011 as a paper entitled How Gender Identities are Constructed and Used Across Generations.  Overall, this facilitation material was shaped by two major primary research studies that I carried out, and my scholarly writing on and engagement with the phenomena of identities, informal learning and women’s status.  The full report of my first primary research study on women’s identity is included in this book as Chapter 16 while the full report of the second research has been published as the book,  Women and power: Education, religion and identity (2012 & 2013; UPPLC & CODESRIA).

19

20     Women, Gender Relations and Social Justice: Teaching, Learning and Identity Politics

Sex

regardless of culture, this is not the same with

•  Sex refers to the biological differences between societal expectations, norms and cultural men and women, or male and female, which

dictates which inform the classification of are universal and do not change.2

persons into male or female gender.

•  Rice University (2013) modified by Little

•  In her exploration of the notion of identity, and McGivern (2014) provided a slightly

Rogers (1998) wrote that West and Zimmerman expanded definition of sex. They defined

(1987) emphasize that gender is “a routine, sex as “physical or physiological differences methodical, and recurrent accomplishment”

between males and females, including both (p. 371).  It grows out of acts that get gendered primary sex characteristics (the reproductive when people use the frames or schemas

system) and secondary characteristics such as culture offers as sense-making resources.

height and muscularity” (p. 366).

Cultural communities “cast particular pursuits

•  They wrote that because the term sex refers to as expressions of masculine and feminine

biological or physical distinctions, characteristics

‘nature’ and members act and interact in ways of sex will not vary significantly between different that routinely reflect these understanding.”

human societies.  For example, all persons of the

•  Rogers further indicated that West and female sex, in general, regardless of culture, Zimmerman concluded that gender is not part will eventually menstruate and develop

of what one is, but something that one does, breasts that can lactate.

and does recurrently, in interaction with others.

Gender

Rogers held that West and Zimmerman’s work

•  Gender is a term that refers to social or on ‘doing gender’, holds insights into not only cultural distinctions associated with being how femininity and masculinity get done,

male or female (Little and McGivern, 2014).

but also how people do their identities while going about their daily business.

•  According to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), (2001), gender refers to

•  Concerning gender identity, Little &

social attributes that are learned or acquired McGivern (2014) wrote that a person’s sex, during socialization as a member of a given as determined by his or her biology, does not community.  Because these attributes are

always correspond with his or her gender.

learned behaviours, they can, and do change Therefore, the terms  sex   and   gender   are not over time.  Gender therefore refers to the interchangeable. Citing Diamond (2002),

socially given attributes, roles, activities, they wrote that gender identity is the extent to responsibilities and needs connected to

which one identifies as being either masculine being men (masculinity) and being women

or feminine.

(femininity) in a given society, at a given time, The Notion of Identity

and as a member of a specific community

Let us examine what identity means, with a view within that society.  Women’s and men’s

to understanding it.

gender identities determine how they are

•  Identity is sameness, continuity, and, in some expected to think and act as men and women.

sense, it implies difference.

•  Whereas the biological features that set a person apart as a male or female are the same 2  As simple and as unproblematic as this appears, West and Zimmerman (2002) theorized that the determination of a person’s sex is made “through the application of socially agreed upon biological criteria for classifying persons as females or males” (p. 43).  Well, this ‘social agreement’ regarding the biological criteria for classification of the sex of persons, has been transhistorical, transnational, and transcultural.

Constructing Feminine and Masculine Identities      21

individual human personality is unique (Mennel, EXERCISE 4.1

1994).

These two questions should help us The Notion of Collective Identity

understand the notion and issue of identity.

(Habitus and Natural?)

1.  Who are you (self-definition) and what

•  Mennel informed us that Pierre Bourdieu beliefs do you hold true and dear about

popularized the term “habitus” for dealing women and about men?

with Level B.

2.  Who do others perceive you to be or think/

•  Habitus is employed in reference to the believe you ought to be? Who do others

dominant modes of conduct, taste, and feeling believe it is valuable to be?

among members of particular groups, even if they are unconscious of the fact that they share Clyde Kluckhohn and Henry Murray’s (1948) dictum these traits with members of their group.

(cited in Mennel, 1994) provides a good framework

•  “Habitus”, when translated to the English for thinking through the question of identity.

expression   second nature,   means, an

•  They provided the dictum: Every person acquired tendency that has become instinctive.

is in certain respect, (a) “like all others”; (b) Mennel (1994) thus considered that habitus

“like some others “; and (c) “like no other.”

is closely related to the notion of identity.

However, he differentiated habitus from

This dictum shows that there are certain charac-identity by showing identity to mean:

teristics:

(a)  That all human beings share in common; A higher level conscious awareness by

(b)  That all human beings share with certain members of a group, some degree of

other human beings; and it shows

reflection and articulation, some positive or negative emotional feelings towards the (c)  The way in which individuals are unique,

characteristics which members of a group

leading to discussions on personal/individual perceive themselves as sharing and in which and collective identities.

they perceive themselves as differing from Mennel (1994) referred to the three ways of other groups (p. 177).

thinking about social habitus and identity as

•  Again, Wiley (1994), kind of apprehended levels (a), (b), and (c).

the   characteristics in Mennel’s submission as

•  Kluckhohn and Murray’s  Level A: Wiley (1994)

“long term abiding qualities, which, despite somewhat explicated Mennel’s position when their importance, may not be part of human he posited that “there is a universal human nature as such” (p. 130).

nature, characterising all human beings

•  The most common forms of identity in the in the same generic way, at all times and literature are gender, ethnic/racial, national, places” (p. 130).  And identified some of the religious, sexual, generational and worker distinguishing features of human nature as identities.

being rational, symbolic, abstract, semiotic, linguistic, etc.

The Notion of Self/Individual/

•  Kluckhohn and Murray’s  Level B: “Draws Personal Identity

attention to the characteristics which all Theorists have put forward key arguments with human beings share in common with  certain respect to personal identity and they are: other human beings in the particular group to

•  Personal identity exists and can be,

which they belong” (Mennel, 1994, p. 177).

when thought of in relation to personal

accountability (from Descartes to Locke to

•  Kluckhohn and Murray’s  Level C: Seeks to Kant and Hegel);

recognize that there are ways in which every

22     Women, Gender Relations and Social Justice: Teaching, Learning and Identity Politics

•  The individualistic conception of identity

•  Although self-definition and assertion of without reference to the social relations that individuality are essential to empowerment, produce it is wrong headed (from Marx to

the self here, is, self-in-relation (Rogers, Mead); and

1998), and so the masculinist psychological

•  Personal identity is a fiction (Hume, Nietzche, model of selfhood is rejected.  It is therefore Freud, Lacan, Strauss and Foucault) (Larrain, thought that it may be worthwhile to avoid 1994, pp. 143-149).

a sharp split between personal identity and collective identity (Mejiuni, 2013, p. 79).

These arguments are the three traditions that are represented in the discourse of identity.

This is an important point in considering the Little and McGivern (2014) wrote that George notion of gender identity.

Herbert Mead advanced a detailed sociological The Notion of Gender Identity

approach to the  self.

In philosophy, identity refers to at least 2 separable

•  They wrote that Mead held that “the self, as questions:

a person’s distinct identity, is only developed

•  First, what gives a thing or a person its through social interaction.” (p. 144).  Mead essential nature, i.e. its  eidos   or   form   and further noted that the crucial component of thus its continuity through time? And second, the self is its capacity for self-reflection, its what makes two things or two persons the

capacity to be “an object to itself” (Mead, same? (Zaretsky, 1994, p. 199).

1934 cited in Little and McGivern, 2014).  On this basis, he broke the self down into two

•  Wiley (1994) appeared to have answered components or ‘phases’, the ‘I’ and the ‘me’.

the questions Zaretsky asked when he said:

“identities individuate and allow us to recognize

•  “The ‘me’ represents the part of the self in individuals, categories, groups, and types of which one recognizes the “organized sets

individuals” (p. 130).  He averred that identities of attitudes” of others toward the self.  It is are “nested within    and express qualities of who we are in other’s eyes: our roles, our selves and collection of selves” (p. 130).

‘personalities’, our public personas ...”

•  Mennel (1994) and again, Wiley (1994)

•  “The ‘I’, on the other hand, represents the part supplied answers to one of Zaretsky’s

of the self that acts on its own initiative or questions – what makes two persons the

responds to the organized attitudes of others.

same?  Wiley identified characteristics that It is the novel, spontaneous, unpredictable part are common to all human beings at all times of the self: the part of the self that embodies and places, while both Wiley and Mennel

the possibility of change or undetermined called attention to the phenomenon of  habitus action …”

(or second nature).

•  “The self is always caught up in a  social

•  Wiley points out that identity may also imply process in which one flips back and forth habits   in   various senses, including Pierre between two distinguishable phases, the I and Bourdieu’s “habitus” (that is,  second nature, the me, as one mediates between one’s own being “modes of conduct, taste and feeling individual actions and individual responses to which predominate among members of

various social situations and the attitudes of particular groups” {Mennel, 1994, p. 177}).

the community” (p. 156).

These, then, are characteristics that are Given the array of theorists and the arguments peculiar, and are to be found among particular they have put forward about personal identity, the groups; a kind of sameness.

position that is becoming widespread, noted by

•  Let us adopt Wiley’s (1994) conception of Mejiuni (2005), is that:

identity, which he considers to be “some

Constructing Feminine and Masculine Identities      23

long-term, abiding qualities, which despite processes, although most are gendered as

their importance, are not features of human

‘women’, then, gender norms and values are nature as such” (p. 130), and based on this, not natural3; they are not women’s essence or try to show what gender identity or women’s essential nature.

identity means.

•  In other words, apart from the reproductive

•  To Wiley’s conception of identity, I add that system which gives the female human person a person’s identity can also be the person’s her essence, the category called ‘woman’ is a essential nature.  That is, those qualities that construction, achieved through what Butler are natural to the person, not second nature.

(1990) called a performance that is repeated.

•  In the case of a female human person, those

•  Even as the construction is achieved through features that are natural to her, are features repeated performance, there is the element of that are present at birth (biological – the entire compulsion which helps both the achievement, reproductive system including hormones and the retention and the reproduction of the the birth canal), and which are expected to construction.  Compulsion is achieved through grow and mature as the female human person a system of punishment for not agreeing with matures with age.

the ‘facts’ of the ‘necessity’ and ‘naturalness’

•  In addition to this,  some long-term, abiding of the qualities of ‘real’ women.

qualities can be found (or are thought to be

•  However, although a construction, the

present) in female human persons, but, such category ‘woman’ exists in the hearts and are either non-existent or are second nature, minds of people, and is therefore a reality acquired tendencies, which are then thought that we have to contend with.

to be transhistorical, transnational, ‘inherent’,

‘innate’ and ‘natural’.

•  This notwithstanding, a woman’s identity or

•   Such qualities

gender identity, cannot be a stable identity are those relating to women’s

interest in keeping family units together, because it is fictitious.  In Butler’s (1990) and in being more interested than men in

words it is “an identity tenuously constituted nurturing the child after her birth.  They are in time, instituted in an exterior space

also about the perception that women possess through stylized repetition of acts” (p. 140); emotions not reason, and so do not have the what West and Zimmermann (2002) referred

will to make key decisions regarding religious, to as “doing gender.”

economic and political issues that are matters

•  The changes (brought about by colonialism) of public concern.  Also, because they lack in who performed what economic roles

will, they are incapable of making decisions (specifically  trading) in the eastern part of about their sexual desires (Fashina, 2001).

Nigeria, which in part led to the “women’s

•  When we talk about women’s identity or wars” (Mba, 1982) shows that gender identity gender identity, the only long-term abiding cannot be a stable identity.

quality that is indisputable is the female human

•   The identity of the female human person that person’s reproductive system.  The other ‘long-is not tenuous is her reproductive system, and term, abiding qualities’ are products of social so, political interests, and political actions can processes that are politically determined.

be taken on the basis of the facts of this, and on the issues around it, because they have

•  If female human persons in Nigeria can be implications for women’s practical gender gendered, either as ‘men’ or ‘women’ by social needs and their strategic gender interests.

3  See Chapter 1 of this book for examples of how men and women are gendered differently in different cultures around the world; that is, how communities ‘do gender’ and how individuals fit themselves into gender categories.

24     Women, Gender Relations and Social Justice: Teaching, Learning and Identity Politics

•  No  doubt, political interests and political Literate and semi-literate/illiterate women in actions are also needed to deconstruct

Ibadan and Lokoja defined themselves in 15

constructed identity and value those identities different ways, and most defined themselves in that are natural to women, but, which were more than one way.

formerly diminished.  It also happens that

•  They defined themselves through their ethnicity, some women define their political interests religion, gender, character, profession/vocation, by, and struggle based on identities that have natal roles, marital status, age, femininity, mas-been constructed for them.

culinity, etc.

•  However, the two categories of women identified The Discourse of Identity: Three

more with their gender identity or their identity Traditions

as women and their individual characters.

Three traditions are represented in the discourse of identity.

•  For literate women, gender identity ranked

•  Essentialism which holds that identities are first (was most frequently mentioned), and given, naturally, and are fixed.  Usually, for all character ranked second, while for semi-times, and places (they are transcontextual literate women, character came first, and and trans-historical)

gender came second.

•  Social constructionism rejects the view

•  Examples:

that there is an identity that is given naturally.

1.  “Outspoken, Bold and I have confidence in Social constructionists believe that whatever myself’ – Feyi;

nature gives is mediated by society – that 2.  “A woman, God-fearing, hardworking and a mother too” – Tanwa;

society forms, builds, moulds, delineates, 3.  “A woman, easygoing, industrious Lawyer.

interprets and explains.

Married with children, Okun by tribe from

•  Deconstruction holds that the subject of Kogi State” – Odunola;

identity should be decentered, such that neither 4.  “I am a girl who believes in equality and nature nor society will confer identity, and there that whatever a man can do, a  woman

are limitless opportunities and possibilities that can do, not better or anything but simply can be explored (Larrain 1994: 143-149).

can do. I am a, should I say, a woman and proud to be one and treated like one not

Let us revisit those two questions we

according to societal standard of inferior posed at the beginning of the session: and second class citizen, but simply a

•  Who are you (self-definition) and what beliefs woman”  – Abosede; and

do you hold true and dear about women and 5.  “I’m a Muslim, I’m a good person, I don’t do about men?

bad things” – Mariam (see Mejiuni, 2013).

•  Who do others perceive you to be or think/

•  These responses show that women inhabit believe you ought to be? Who do others

multiple identities.

believe it is valuable to be?

The Notion of Multiplicity of Identities Women’s Self-Definition

•  In real life, people are not just women, or Below are the results of the analysis of the data Muslims, or Hispanics, or aboriginals, gay or I collected in Lokoja and Ibadan, Nigeria, during poor. They would inhabit two or more identities.

my study of how formal education, religion and

•  However, social relations are complex, and so informal learning construct the identities of are the networks of interactions between and women.4

within groups.

4   See Mejiuni, O. (2013).  Women and power: Education, religion and identity. Dakar, Senegal: CODESRIA.

Constructing Feminine and Masculine Identities      25

•  Therefore, it is not unusual to find individuals private spheres, women’s participation in politics making the decision to favour one identity and violence against women, they said women: over another.

•  Should not handle tedious roles because of

•  The discourse of multiciplicity of identities their fragile nature.

addresses the constant pressures that persons

•  Are too tender, their decisions will be influenced are under to favour particular identities –

by men, they are too uncertain, and can easily categorical identities (Mejiuni, 2005).

change decisions with little pressure.

•  Allied to these are concerns about negotiation,

•  Are better managers of resources and good renegotiation, and transformation of identities.

listeners.

•  It is thought that these are unavoidable,

•  Are human beings like men.

given: that persons inhabit multiple identities,

•  Are equal to men in intellectual capability, more given the tenuous nature of most identities, suited to discharging official functions than men.

and given unequal relations of power within

•  Are more dedicated to their jobs than men, groups and between groups, which leads to not easily influenced to perpetuate evil, they skewed distribution of rights and resources.

are mothers, have love for all.

•  People rethink principles, transform their

•  Are not mentally and emotionally stable.

thinking,  form new alliances, or stand back

•  Can hardly undergo the  rigours associated from an either-or-position when confronted with certain offices and the dangers there in, with new experiences or new realities.

and are often unable to harmonize certain

•  Given different contexts, experiences, realities, key/very demanding offices with private/

interests and goals, women and men do not domestic responsibilities.

favour one identity or two throughout a lifetime.

They can drop some identities and pick others; When persons define themselves in particular they can renegotiate and also transform their ways, they expect to be recognized as such.  Let identities.

us return to women’s self-definition – how women defined themselves in Mejiuni (2013).

Definition by Others: Who We are and

We would note similarities and discrepancies Who It is Valuable to Be

in how men and women defined women on

Again, let us return to those two questions and how particular issues, thereby pointing our attention women defined themselves in my study, cited above.

to the fact that self-definition and self-recognition,

•  For persons who are interested in the issues definition by others and non-recognition by others of identity, the question they would probably is at the core of politics of identities.

ask is: are the women’s self-definition a true

•  For instance, whereas some women, especially reflection of their subjective ‘I’ or are those among semi-literate/illiterate women defined responses reflections of who others think they themselves as breadwinners or co-breadwinners, are or are valuable to be?

no man defined women that way.

•  A number of scholars have observed that

•  And whereas many men believe women are there are too many challenges to the efforts

‘flexible’ and ought to be ‘flexible’, only three of persons to attain stable self-recognition or of 183 women thought women were flexible.

coherent subjectivity (Brown, 1994; Calhoun, There are several reasons individuals and groups 1994; Rogers, 1998).

will wish to recognize certain characteristics in others, and refuse to recognize or devalue other When men in formal work settings and male students were asked to define women, when they characteristics in others.  Power and the interests were asked about women’s roles in the public and that it can serve is a major reason.

26     Women, Gender Relations and Social Justice: Teaching, Learning and Identity Politics

•  According to Wiley (1994), identities become recognize in them and claim values for those political and problematic when certain charac-qualities that others have either refused to teristics are attributed socially and insti-acknowledge in them or which others have

tutionally to individuals and groups, and such devalued in them.  In identity politics, groups define their rights and duties, and affect their deconstruct certain identities, and lay claims quality of life.

to others (Mejiuni, 2005).

The Politics of Identity and the Politics

•  The claims and resistances to identities appear of Gender Identity

sensible, only against the background of other

•  Once identity becomes political, subjectivity claims and social valuations (Calhoun, 1994, (the self-conscious perspective of the person 24).

or subject or the “I”) is possible only through

•  The attempts by women to deconstruct some the individual’s agency.

and claim other identities are borne out of

•  Calhoun (1994) posits that there are too many the fact that, in the first place, politics gave challenges to the efforts of persons  “to attain women the identities (the second nature, not stable self-recognition or coherent subjectivity”

essence) through social processes that are supposed to prepare persons (in this case the (p. 20).  There are interrelated problems of self-female human person) for adult life.

recognition and recognition by others.

•

•  This is not then to suggest that the claims to Craig Calhoun makes the point that: “it is not recognition by ethnic, gender and religious just that others fail to see us for who we are sure groups have the same standing.  The identity we really are, or repress us because of who they politics of women for instance, is different think we are”, we are constantly confronted from those of ethnic and religious groups with discussions of “who it is possible, or because it focuses attention on identity

appropriate or valuable to be” (p. 20).

politics as it relates to  both personal/family

•  This affects the way we see ourselves, with life and the public sphere, within religions attendant doubts and tensions, resulting in (the demands of women to Zamfara State

deconstructing certain identities and making Governor), within ethnic groups (Ogoni

strategic claims to others.

women), and the national life (proposed

•  Identity politics is therefore about seeking amendments to the constitution of the Federal recognition, legitimacy, autonomy and power, Republic of Nigeria5).

and it is about resistance.

•  In addition, whereas identity politics of ethnic

•  When persons and groups give expression to and religious groups can be about “equivalent their beliefs about who they are sure they are, standing with others” (Calhoun, 1994, p. 25), when they make demands and take action, they that is, having access to the same sort of thing are inviting others to respond (Mejiuni, 2005).

that “they” have access to, identity politics They employ strategies which range from non-of women cannot be seen this way alone.  In violence to violence and outright wars.  Those addition to this (that is, having access to the who they are inviting to respond also respond same sort of things that they, “men”, have access with the same range of strategies; strategies to), it also has to be seen from the point of view which reflect different dimensions of power.

of  a need to be treated differently, because of her essential nature.  Her essential nature makes her

•  Also, as groups press their demands and take able to menstruate, conceive and give birth to actions, they are refusing, diminishing or a baby.  Men don’t do these, even though they displacing the identities that others wish to facilitate the conception of babies.

5   See Chapter 16 of this book for details.

Constructing Feminine and Masculine Identities      27

•  We return to the fact that the identity politics zation, a person cannot learn the material of women focuses attention on both the private and non-material culture of her context.

and public spheres of life.  This is an indication

•  Little and McGivern (2014) wrote that

that   within the identity politics of ethnic and socialization is essential to society, both because religious groups, there will be different layers it trains members to operate successfully and types of struggles over the essential nature within it and because it perpetuates culture of women and the social and institutional by transmitting it to new generations.  And, qualities attributed and applied to women (read without socialization, a society’s culture would constructed for women) within their ethnic and perish as members die off.

religious groups and in national  life.

•  However, critical sociologists would argue Participants should explore the links of politics of that socialization reproduces inequality from gender identity to:

generation to generation by conveying different

•  Religious fundamentalisms.

expectations and norms to those with different

•  States legislating marriage and organizing social and biological characteristics. For example, individuals are socialized differently by gender, wedding ceremonies.

social class, and race.

•  Dress code and women’s ability to access resources.

•  Just as an interactionist studying socialization

•

would be concerned with face-to-face

Rape of women after their husband’s death: exchanges and symbolic communication.

Catching the spirit, etc.

For example, dressing baby boys in blue and baby girls in pink is a way that messages are The Processes of Identity Construction conveyed about differences in gender roles In the second part of our exploration of the subject of (Little & McGivern, 2014).

the construction of identity, we would examine how the processes of sex-role socialization and informal

•  Concerning sex-role socialization, the problem learning are central to how women and men, but is not that girls and boys are often socialized women in particular, become ‘women’ or acquire into playing specific and different roles, and their gender identity. Central to these processes are that society’s beliefs about and expectations teaching and learning processes. Mejiuni, Cranton of the different sexes are different (that and Taiwo (2015) situated socialization at the is, being gendered into ‘woman-feminine’

beginning of the continuum of informal learning.

and ‘man-masculine’), the problem is that the roles assigned to the boys/men (manSex-Role Socialization

masculine) are considered more important

•  Little and McGivern (2014) wrote that

and superior to the roles assigned to the girls/

“socialization  is the process through which women (woman-feminine).6

people are taught to be proficient members Let us look quickly at the agents of socialization of a society.  It describes the ways that people that Little and McGivern (2014) categorized into come to understand societal norms and

social group agents and institutional agents and expectations, to accept society’s beliefs, and how they engage in sex-role socialization.  It is the to be aware of societal values.   Socialization

socializing processes, intra-relations and inter-

… is a sociological process that occurs through relationships within and between these groups socializing” (p. 147).

that constitute the socialization process.

•  They averred that human activities, including

•  The “family is the first agent of socialization.

the most basic are, learned.  Without sociali-Mothers and fathers, siblings and grandparents, 6  See Chapter 1 of this book for an exploration of how gender roles signify hierarchy.

28     Women, Gender Relations and Social Justice: Teaching, Learning and Identity Politics plus members of an extended family, all teach

•  In religious institutions: through preaching a child what he or she needs to know.  For (read teaching); informal learning and non-example, they show the child how to use

formal education programmes, women are

objects … how to relate to others … and

told who it is valuable to be.8

how the world works” (p. 150).  However,

•  Through rules, regulations, policies, the sociologists understand that families do not codes of conduct/ethics in formal (and

socialize children in a vacuum; race, social informal) workplaces and in governmental

class, religion, and other societal factors play structures, people are taught how to behave in an important role in socialization.

and navigate these systems.  These structures

•  For town, city and literate people, in preparation are usually male-centric, and they have

for the birth of a child: the names that we would had difficulties adjusting to the needs and give and the colours of the clothes we buy have interests of women when they have admitted feminine and masculine associations.

women into those institutions.9

•  In the process of nurturing/socialization:

•  In the old media (TV, radio, satellite female and male children are continuously broadcasting, newspapers, magazines, and

told what a person of their gender should and films); and the new media (The Internet

should not do and how they should or should and social media), stereotypical views of the not behave; and what roles they should or identities of women and men are prevalent, should not and ought not to play within the they are continuously being reinforced and household and in the public sphere.

they persist.10

•  Through peer influence and societal/

•  And, in all the above, through a system of community codes, ethics, disciplinary processes rewards and punishment, society ensures that and pressures, women and men are told who it women become the ‘real women’ that they are is appropriate to be.

expected to be.

•  In schools (and other learning centres) through

•  As we would see in this second leg of our the formal curriculum – what we teach and exploration of the construction of feminine fail to teach and how we teach; through non-and masculine identities, the processes of formal education; and in informal learning socialization, teaching, learning, unlearning processes (including the hidden curriculum), and transformation of beliefs about women we tell women and men, girls and boys: what and men do not stop when humans become

they should believe about themselves, about adults.  They continue to learn (pick-up skills, others, and their world; and who they are/

acquire knowledge, attitudes and values), should be, and who it is best to be.  Most through formal, non-formal, but mainly

children and young people, then, internalize through informal learning, in their entire life what they have been taught.  Some resist

course.

roles, beliefs and values that are being foisted on them, at times, causing disruptions to

•  According to Butler (1994, p. 37), the result themselves and others in the process.7

of (sex-role) socialization process is that 7  See Fashina 2001 and Mejiuni, 2013 for how different learning processes construct women’s identities. See and read Chapters 6 and 7 of this book, as some of the fall outs of those processes. See also, Chapter 19 of this book for an exploration of feminist discourses of how education can empower women.

8

See Chapter 3 of this book; Mejiuni (2006). Confounding and empowering women …; and Mejiuni (2013a).  Women and power: … for how religion shapes women’s identities.

9

See Chapter 14 of this book for an exploration of the gendered nature of the workplace.

10

See Chapter 13 of this book for the examination of conscious, unconscious and hidden bias in the representation of gender issues in the media.

Constructing Feminine and Masculine Identities      29

culture, figured as male, active and abstract, Informal Learning

determines how the “raw nature” of women is

•  Informal learning is central to our lives and it to be “cooked” or gendered, in order to have is pervasive.  We engage in it, right from birth a real woman.

(when we suckle at the breasts of our mothers

•   Once the real woman is obtained, she becomes or the silicone nipple of feeding bottles for the an ‘object of desire’, ‘can’t think’, ‘too weak first time) until our last moments on earth, to partake in key political affairs’.   What she that is, from cradle to grave.

becomes through the social process then

•  How did we learn before we got into pre-determines her right to give or withhold

schools? Through our parents, families,

consent in sexual relationships, her right to friends and neighbours and through sociali-partake in decision-making processes that zation some would respond.  How did we

affect her life, etc. and thus her quality of life.

learn after high schools or universities

•  In my study of how formal education,

when we stopped schooling?  Many people

religion and informal learning construct the will quickly remember the adult and non-identities of women, referenced earlier, when formal education programmes and courses

the participants in the research were asked they attended; the adult basic education

how they came about their views regarding programmes, continuing professional education women’s roles in the private and public

in colleges and universities, and the workshops, spheres, Folarin said:

conferences, seminars, retreats, and so on they had attended.

Firstly, my mother’s way of life has greatly

•  Others might remember it was through

influenced my view of the expected roles

reading a novel or a newspaper, listening to of women in making the home.  While

a conversation at the sideline of a conference, in public, people like Prof. (Mrs) … has

or on the metro, visiting a museum, learning tremendously changed my view about

women’s role outside the home.  A Woman

through their participation in the activities of has to be fearless, diligent, hardworking an advocacy group, watching programmes on and contribute greatly to the development TV, and just surfing the net.

of her community.

•  Yet others may remember lessons they picked up when a teacher in the civic class in their high

•  Ajoke, a female student said one is scolded school referred to certain groups of people in for not learning particular skills (cooking and a particular way, how the teacher in another cleaning) and invites negative responses for class paid attention to the needs and progress expressing views that deviate from societal being made by certain categories of students expectations of women’s roles.

in her class, the way their parents, and the

•  Almost all the participants cited their friends they met on the football field referred experiences, upbringing, and religion as

to persons who were of a different colour influences on their views about the roles of or creed; what they learned from watching women in the public and private spheres.

a film, participation in some community

Female students, women in the informal

festivals, or in marking the remembrance day economy and female apprentices also alluded for their countries’ fallen heroes, and what to ‘the way things are’.  A handful of literate they had learned from shopping in the open female and male participants referred to

markets or supermarkets.

culture, tradition and socialization.  And a male participant said it was “by carefully What then is informal learning

watching women over time.”  This means he

•  Mejiuni, Cranton and Taiwo (2015) wrote that: “Informal learning is thought of as had learned by observation.

30     Women, Gender Relations and Social Justice: Teaching, Learning and Identity Politics experiential, incidental and or unstructured, how we pick up much of our outlook on the non-institutional learning.”  Citing Hrimech world both good – kindness to strangers –

(2005), Livingstone (2000), and Marsick

and bad – racism, homophobia, sexism.

& Volpe (1999), they wrote that it is the It is possible for persons to pass through construction, co-construction, or acquisition life, from cradle to grave and not notice, of new knowledge, understanding, skills or pay attention to, and reflect on their tacit attitudes, which people undertake whether knowledge (p. xliii).

consciously or unconsciously.

•  They posited that “incidental learning is

•  They stated that “when it is a conscious learning that we are not aware of when it process, the control of what, how, where, and occurs but is acknowledged later on reflection when to learn rests with the learner.  When it upon incidents, practices, and processes, is an unconscious process, the locus of control that we have participated in or witnessed. It is diffused and the process, usually does not is  a  form  of  unconscious  informal  learning”

involve  teaching by persons specially designated (p. xliii).

as facilitators, instructors or teachers” (p. 24).

•  They defined self-directed learning as:

•  Mejiuni, Cranton and Taiwo (2015) identified

“learning in which individuals make decisions the types of informal learning that have

about their own learning; it can take place been documented in the literature as:

in formal (where students are asked to

tacit and explicit informal learning, self-participate in decisions within a course, or directed learning, auto-didactic learning, where they make decisions about which

and the informal learning that occurs within courses to take within a program), non-formal formal and non-formal teaching-learning

(where students contribute to the decisions), interactions, but is not a part of the curriculum, and informal contexts (where individuals

usually called the ‘hidden curriculum’.

initiate and engage in independent learning

•  Informal learning also takes place within the projects)”(p. xliii).

context of formal and non-formal educational

•  Finally, they described explicit learning “as interactions when the learning is outside of the actual course or workshop.

another form of deliberate learning but not marked by the same level of deliberative

•  Schugurensky (2000) provides a typology of intensity as self-directed learning” (p. xlii).

informal learning, broadly based on the criteria of intentionality and awareness, and from his

•  The first two forms of informal learning the typology and the different forms of informal authors identified are unconscious informal learning identified in the literature, Mejiuni, learning while the other two are deliberate Cranton and Taiwo (2015) identified four types forms of informal learning.  They made the case of informal learning – tacit learning, incidental that it is possible for an individual to move from learning, explicit learning and self-directed noticing and becoming aware of an informal learning – that they posited as occurring on learning incident, to engaging in explicit or self-a continuum, ranging from the tacit, which is directed learning to deepen the understanding unconscious and diffused, to the most explicit of an issue or clarify the tacit learning.

form, which is self-directed learning.

•  The figure of the continuum of informal

•  They defined tacit learning as:

learning Mejiuni, Cranton and Taiwo (2015) provided (see Figure 4.1) shows different The most ubiquitous form of unconscious

informal learning. It unfolds mostly

shades of the same phenomenon and the

through living, socialization, and sponta-possibility of moving to the right on the neous apprehension of knowledge and

continuum, between the different types of information as part of everyday living.  It is informal learning.

Constructing Feminine and Masculine Identities      31

Tacit Learning

Incidental Learning

Explicit Learning

Self-directed Learning

Socialization

Learning is unintentional

Characterized by some

Characterized by a high

Part of everyday

Retrospective recognition

degree of intentionality

degree of intentionality

experience

of learning

Fig. 4.1:  Forms of informal learning on a continuum Source: Mejiuni, Cranton & Taiwo,  2015, p. xxvi

•  There is also an important point they made,

•  From their reflections on and analyses of and it is that while informal learning is a contributions to their volume on informal distinct type of learning, it also interacts with, learning, Cranton, Taiwo and Mejiuni

and it is present in organized and structured (2015) identified diverse locations, spaces, teaching learning interactions and contexts in conditions, and relationships, as the contexts the formal school system and in non-formal of informal learning that authors in the 17

education.  Therefore, it is an important part chapters in their book recorded.  The contexts of the education network/system, albeit a include formal workplaces and formal

beggared cousin.

education institutions comprising healthcare contexts and helping professions, public

The contexts of informal learning administration, the army, childhood and

•  In the literature on informal learning, it has middle childhood and higher education, and been recorded that individuals, who are also not-for-profit youth organizations.

members of groups acquire attitudes, values, skills and knowledge and gain new insight

•  Authors reported participants whose learning when interacting with family members, friends happened during online conversations and

and neighbours (Avoseh, 2001); during income online courses; during non-formal education generating activities or work (Marsick & Volpe, activities such as adult literacy classes, and 1999; Livingstone & Eichler, 2005); during an educational program designed to help

household, leisure, voluntary and community establish and enhance self-reflective practice activities (English, 2002; Findsen, 2006;); in among mental health practitioners.

social movements (Hernandez, 1997; Lander,

•  The other contexts were: learning in the 2003; Obilade & Mejiuni, 2006; Gouin,

contexts of relationships, specifically,

2009); during formal learning activities and in relationships of trust  in the private and public formal educational contexts (Coffield, 2000; spheres;  learning in the context of the human Jamieson, 2009 & Mejiuni, 2013a); in markets body, specifically, a woman’s breast – the (Jubas, 2011; Mejiuni, 2008; Akinsooto &

diseased and healing states of a woman’s breast Mejiuni, 2014); and as they reflect on their (in the context of the diagnosis, treatment own experience and those of others.

and other experiences associated with breast

•  Persons learn through travelling, in libraries, cancer), and the functional and nurturing through the mass media, the Internet, in zoos role of a woman’s breast or breastfeeding and museums, through socialization and

(in the context of limited support and, at informal relationships and structures, such as in times, hegemonic discourses that resulted in supervisor-employee, mentor-mentee, master-negative attitudes to breastfeeding).  In the apprenticeship and seller-buyer situations and context of the human body, adversity resulted relationships.

32     Women, Gender Relations and Social Justice: Teaching, Learning and Identity Politics in learning, and being a woman was central The forms and the contexts of informal learning to the learning.

we have highlighted should sensitize us to the

•  The spaces in which different forms of informal possibilities of a wide range of influences on learning have occurred were educational,

children, youths and adults’ identities in an entire and in the main, non-educational contexts; life course.  Within patriarchal contexts and economic spaces, social spaces, cyber spaces, institutions, the implications for the continuing physical spaces, and spaces where persons feminization of girls/women and masculinization with shared interests meet.

of boys/men are apparent.  Just the same way, these same forms, processes and contexts of

•  These contexts are important factors in informal learning offer possibilities – they could the informal learning reported by authors be locations for resisting oppressive, restrictive because there is often a direct link between and discriminating identities, and laying strategic the knowledge, skills and attitudes that are claims to others.

learned or insights gained, and the interests If we have doubts, let us reflect on the number and needs of the learners (or the interest and of hours of informal learning that children and needs of significant others) in those contexts.

students may experience while schooling (during

•  If informal learning occurs in these contexts, term) and while on vacation, so we can explore it means it is linked with living, it is linked the implications of the number of hours for what with day-to-day activities, and so it means they might learn and the impact of their learning persons learn as long as they live.  The key on the formation of their identities.  See Figures point that we need to take along is that in the 4.2 and 4.3.

case of tacit and incidental learning, it is not a conscious process, whereas, in the case of 2500

m

explicit and self-directed learning, the learner deliberately seeks knowledge, skills, attitudes 1920

1920

1920 1920

2000

or hopes to change or reinforce beliefs and values, albeit outside organized structures 1500

and institutions.

1000

960

•  However, our tacit learning is very important 500

because that is where unconscious and

hidden bias which are learned processes, are 0

Number of hours per annu

0

formed.

Sleeping

Schooling

Leisure

11  The unconscious and hidden bias

Formal

then become our frames of reference12 which term-time =

1920

1920

1920

8 months

may be noticed and changed or may never

Holidays

be noticed, and so there is no possibility of

= 4 months

960

0

1920

changing it.  Our frames of reference could Fig. 4.2:  Probable number of hours pupils and students also be noticed and reinforced, including spend on sleeping, schooling, and leisure per through explicit and self-directed learning.

annum

•  It is within these teaching-learning processes Source:  Author’s reckoning

that the construction and internalization of gender identities take place.

11  See Chapter 13 of this book for discussions on the role of unconscious and hidden bias in how we form attitudes and behave.

12

Those assumptions and expectations that help us to understand our world and our relationship with it (that is, make meaning of our world) (Mezirow & Associates, 2000; Cranton, 2005).

Constructing Feminine and Masculine Identities      33

What Should We Do

We need to:

•  Deconstruct identities that disempower us 22%

•  Make strategic claims to certain identities 45%

•  Use the processes through which identities are constructed to achieve these.

33%

Finally

•  I urge us to keep this excerpt from Mary Rogers (1998) in view.  In her discussion of women’s identity, she said:

Schooling (also site of informal learning) Sleeping

The projects of selfhood and identity

Leisure, non-formal education activities, part-time invite us, in sum, to demonstrate the

work and perhaps also, mischief! (sites of informal possibilities buried under what culture has learning)

deemed impossible or inconceivable… To

secure ourselves and enact our identities Fig. 4.3:  Probable percentage of hours per annum in liberated ways requires bringing to the spent by pupils and students on sleeping, cultural surface what lies buried beneath schooling and leisure during formal term-its institutionalized sedimentations … In time and holidays

lieu of seizing those challenges, we can

Source: Author’s reckoning

remain queued up in the lines of society’s matrix of domination.  We can remain

EXERCISE 4.2

what culture has named us rather than

what we name ourselves (pp. 373-374).

Questions to ponder

1. How do physical/geographical location, References and Further Reading

individual biographies, and cultural,

Akinsooto, T. A., & Mejiuni, O. (2014). Dynamics social, institutional and historical locations of informal learning in two local markets influence identity/identity construction?

in Ile-Ife, southwest Nigeria. In V. C. X.

2.  How crucial is women’s identities to their Wang, & V. C. Bryan (Eds.),  Andragogical empowerment or disempowerment?

and pedagogical methods for curriculum and program development (pp. 275-298). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. DOI:10.4018/978-1-4666-Identities Can be Used to Either

5872-1.ch014

Empower or Disempower Women

Avoseh, M. B. M. (2001). Learning to be active Identities can be used:

•

citizens: Lessons of traditional Africa for To deny women some rights and to grant

lifelong learning.  International Journal women some other rights.

of Lifelong Learning,   20(6), 179-186.

•  To lower women’s self-esteem.

doi:10.1080/02601370110088454

•  As the basis for and justification of violence Brown, K. M. (1994). Fundamentalism and the against women.

control of women. In J. S. Hawley (Ed.),

•  To deny women’s participation in politics and Fundamentalism and gender. New York: the public sphere.

Oxford University Press

Butler, J. (1990).  Gender trouble. London: This means that on the basis of gender identities, Routledge, Chapman & Hall, Inc.

women may/will be able to, or they will be unable Calhoun, C. (1994). Social Theory and the to participate in sustainable development.

Politics of Identity. In C. Calhoun (Ed.),  Social

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adult education (pp. 310-312). New York: Oxford: Blackwell.

Palgrave Macmillan.

Coffield, F. (2000).  The necessity of informal Jamieson, P. (2009). The serious matter of informal learning. Bristol, UK: Policy Press.

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Looking back and looking forward. In O.

Jubas, K. (2011). Everyday scholars:

Mejiuni, P. Cranton, & O. Taiwo (Eds.),

Framing informal learning in terms of

Measuring and analyzing informal learning in academic disciplines and skills.  Adult the digital age (pp. 274-294).  Hershey, PA: Education Quarterly,

61(3), 225-243.

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Lander, D. (2003). Activist women as action learners: English, L. M. (2002). Learning how they

A visual genealogy of community organizing for learn: International adult educators in

lifelong learning. In Proceedings of International the global sphere.  Journal of Studies in Conference on Researching Learning Outside International Education,   6(3), 230-248. doi: the Academy  (pp. 246-253). Glasgow, UK: The 10.1177/102831530263003

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Principal Investigators: Abubakar Momoh

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women through non-formal and informal

Hrimech, M. (2005). Informal learning. In L. M.

Education? Religious leaders in Ibadan

English (Ed.),  International encyclopedia of and Lokoja, Nigeria, on knowledge that

Constructing Feminine and Masculine Identities      35

matters.   In L. English, & J. Groen (Eds.),  The Mennel, S. (1994). The formation of we-images: 25th Annual Conference Proceedings of the A process theory. In C.  Calhoun (Ed.),  Social Canadian Association for the Study of Adult theory and the politics of identity (pp. 175-Education (CASAE) (pp. 161-166). Toronto: 197).  Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.

York University.

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and Stanley Mpofu, Hamburg, Germany:

Rice University (2013)/Little, W., & McGivern, UNESCO Institute for Education, 2006, 174

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346. doi:10.1177/0741713608319766

Rogers, M. (Ed.) (1998).  Contemporary feminist Mejiuni, O. (2013a).  Women and power: Education, theory.  USA: McGraw-Hill.

religion and identity. Dakar: Council for the Schugurensky, D. (2000).  The forms of informal Development of Social Science Research in learning: Towards a conceptualization of the Africa (CODESRIA).

field. NALL working paper #19-2000.

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Gender: A sociological reader (pp. 42-47).

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org/pdf/Unsafe_Spaces.pdf

5

Cent[e]ring and Decent[e]ring Gender1

Outline

•  The Concepts of Difference, Diversity and Social Justice

•  The Notions of Difference and Diversity

•  The Concept of Social (In)Justice

•  Cent[e]ring Gender: Difference and Diversity as Assets, Strengths and Opportunities

-  To Centre Gender …

•  Decent[e]ring Gender: Rethinking Difference and Diversity as Sources of Discriminatory Practices

-  To Decentre Gender

The Concepts of Difference, Diversity

Wave’ feminist writers, who defined the

and Social Justice

term politically.  Harris and White (2013) Let us begin our exploration of these inter-averred that whereas ‘Second Wave’ feminists connected concepts by first examining the notions

“emphasized the sameness of those within

of difference and diversity.

the category ‘woman’ and their difference The Notions of Difference and

from men, … later, feminism moved towards Diversity

exploring different and distinctive women’s

•  According to Hill (2005), the notion of diversity voices, and emphasized the differences of and implies dissimilarities, multiples, discontinuities intersections between age, class, disability, and difference; so multiculturalism and

ethnicity, race and sexuality” (p. 148).

diversity include the celebration of difference.

•  Black feminists, including Audre Lorde, bell Citing Young (1991), Hill wrote that the post-hooks, etc. have objected to the misleading modern notion of difference means “specificity, universalism of feminism, stressing “the

variation, heterogeneity” (p. 190).

deep differences existing between women at

•  Marshall (1998) wrote that the term

all levels, especially with regards to access

“difference” was first used by ‘Second

to scarce resources and power as a result of 1   This is the edited version of the material which I used to facilitate the module entitled Centering and Decentering Gender, at the July-August 2018 session of the Centre for Gender and Social Policy Studies, Obafemi Awolowo University’s Bespoke Residential Certificate Courses (BRCC).  The module comprised three topics: “The concepts of difference, diversity and social justice”; “Centering gender – difference and diversity as assets, strengths and opportunities”; and “Decentering gender – Rethinking difference and diversity as sources of discriminatory practices.”

I had presented some sections of the first topic as one of the topics in the module entitled: Sensitization to Gender Issues within Discourses of Development and Social (In)justice, at the Association of Commonwealth Universities (ACU) – Ebonyi State University (EBSU) Gender Training Workshop held between 4th & 5th April 2018 in Abakaliki.

36

Cent[e]ring and Decent[e]ring Gender     37

ethnic differences and divisions based on Social justice as non-discrimination

class and sexual orientation (Marshall, 1998, and honouring and respecting

p. 159).

difference/diversity

•  So, whereas some feminists (Kate Millett and

•  Social justice means non-discrimination on the Shulamith Firestone, for instance) hold that basis of sex, class, race, ethnicity, creed, age, women’s difference from men is a principal sexual orientation, disability/able-bodiedness, manifestation of women’s oppression by men, and so on; it means inclusion and respect for others (Mary Daly for instance) hold that and honouring difference; and it is central to discourses of identity.

difference refers more to the fact that women have different experiences of work, love and

•  One could also read social justice as non-family, and a different psychology from men.

discrimination on the basis of difference or They view difference as a cause to embrace identity, be it natural or constructed.

and celebrate (Marshall, 1998).

•  Marshall (1998) wrote that to discriminate is

•  According to Hill (2005), Jean Francois to treat unfairly.  Social injustice or discrimi-Lyotard’s position on difference contests nation includes  minimizing, trivializing,

“totalizing narratives and regimentation

and non-recognition of the issues, concerns, because such narratives minimize, devalue, experiences, interests and needs of individuals deny and erase difference” (p. 191).  Thus, and groups who are minorities; that is,

within discourses and movements for social those who are different from the majority or justice, “recognizing and valuing difference mainstream.

has become the central component of anti-

•  The values, beliefs, cultures, and needs of the oppressive practice” (Harris & White, 2013, minority have not been normalized so they p. 148).

are on the edge or the periphery.  However,

•  The challenges scholars have pointed out in minimizing, trivializing, and non-recognition regard to the notion of difference are that: of the issues, concerns, experiences, interests 1.  It could be used as a means of ‘othering’

and needs of the individuals have a negative by those who wish to distribute power

impact on the well-being of those concerned.

unevenly.  According to Hill (2005), the

It shows contempt for the persons or

processes of marginalization are also

people who are different from those in the enacted through discourses of difference; mainstream.

2.  Concentrating on individual differences

•  Discrimination also includes attribution of can obscure shared interests, thereby

characteristics to individuals and groups weakening the potential strength that

(stereotyping), characteristics, which, when could be drawn from uniting against

socially and institutionally applied to groups common sources of injustice and

of individuals, define their rights and duties, oppression (Harris & White, 2013); and

which then affect the quality of their lives (Wiley, 1994).

3. Politically neutral or uncritically held notions of difference could disguise

•  Stereotyping/prejudicing (preconceived opinion social inequalities both between men and

or bias against or in favour of a thing or a person), women, and among women.

could be positive or negative, but it is usually negative.  It is usually negative or unfavourable The Concept of Social (In)Justice

attitude towards a group or its members.

We shall explore social justice from the point Prejudice is characterized by stereotyped beliefs of view of non-discrimination, honouring and that are not tested against reality, but rather have respecting difference and diversity; identity; and to do with a person’s own feelings and attitudes.

egalitarianism.

It is inherently unjust.

38     Women, Gender Relations and Social Justice: Teaching, Learning and Identity Politics

•  Discrimination also involves  unequal It is important to consider social (in)justice from opportunities to access resources (usually the point of view of identity.  When social justice stemming from social and institutional(ized) or injustice is viewed from the point of view of prejudices), and  unequal and unfair

identity, a slightly more nuanced perspective on distribution of rights and resources.

the phenomenon emerges.

•  Finally,   to discriminate is to dominate: to

•  Identity is sameness and difference, who we insist on prioritizing the interests and

are, and what we believe in and value, which needs of a group over those of others, by often also includes who others think we are, fiat.  Such prioritization would usually not what they think we believe or should believe, have a rational basis; it is usually steeped in and value.

unconscious or hidden bias (prejudices) and

•  Kluckhohn and Murray’s dictum, cited in subsequently, explicitly enforced through Mennel (1994), which is that: every person is, subtle or overt exercise of power.

in certain respects: “like all other[s], like some

•  The group that dominates and prioritizes its other[s], and like no other[s]” is a good way to interests and needs, would then usually also  go understand the notion of identity.  The dictum on to enforce its own values, beliefs, moral precepts, focuses on characteristics that all human and moral defaults.  The dimensions of social beings share in common, characteristics which injustice therefore range from the seemingly human beings share with certain other human innocuous to abuse and outright violence.

beings, and the way in which individuals are unique, leading to discussions on personal and

•  Marshall (1998) informs us that two key collective identities.2

texts that explain prejudice are Theodor

Adorno et al.’s  The authoritarian personality

•  If one examines the point about  sameness, that (1950) which provides detailed personality is, what all human beings share in common, foundations of prejudice and Gordon Allport’s or our homogeneity, that is a good point from The nature of prejudice (1954) which synthesizes which to provide equal opportunities to access research findings attempting to integrate rights and resources.

the psychological, structural, and historical

•  The point about  group difference is that it foundations of prejudice.

compels us to attend to difference in beliefs,

•  In   Thinking sociologically, Zygmunt Bauman values, and needs.

(cited in Marshall, 1998, p. 522) said

•   Individual difference impels us to pay attention prejudice results in double moral standards.

to the peculiar socio-historical circumstance of individuals.

EXERCISE 5.1

•  However, from the same lens, we will notice Questions to ponder

that there are inter and intra-group values and 1.  Have you ever sighted social injustice that beliefs, and prejudices that could perpetuate emanated from difference?  Can you cite

social injustice.

the social injustice you sighted?

•  Beliefs, for instance, about women’s inferiority to men cut across creeds/religions, abuse in Social (in)justice from the point of

children-adult relationship cuts across racial view of identity

and ethnic boundaries, and the same applies The preceding section viewed social injustice or to attitudes towards persons with disabilities.

discrimination from the point of view of difference.

2

See Chapter 4 of this book for a more detailed explanation of the notion of identity.

Cent[e]ring and Decent[e]ring Gender     39

Social justice as egalitarianism

the structural issues that led to injustice and

•  Social justice is egalitarianism, a doctrine measures to ensure that the injustice stops/

which sees equality of condition, outcome, does not persist.

reward, and privilege as a desireable goal of

•  Such measures include paying attention social organization.

to difference/identity, and to the issues,

•  Marshall (1998) contended that, the basis concerns, experiences, interests and needs of of this belief is both religious and secular individuals and their groups and improving and that most academic debates about the

the well-being of those who had been affected concept of justice start with John Rawls’

by a lack of attention to difference.

famous ‘difference principle’ written in his

•  The measures also include giving all people book,  A theory of justice (1972), which asserts equal opportunities to access resources

that   inequalities in the distribution of scarce and ensuring fair distribution of rights and goods (for example, power, money, or access resources, including power resources in a way to healthcare) are justified only if they serve that would assist historically disadvantaged to increase the advantage of the least favored persons in specific contexts to benefit.

groups in society.

•  For instance, education, broadly conceived,

•  Flores et al. (2014) wrote that scholars are in is a key factor in individuals’ and/or groups’

agreement that social justice refers to  a society capacity to gain access to power resources.

which values diversity by providing all people and groups with respect, dignity, fairness, basic

•  The power resources that Marshall (1998) rights, and opportunities.

identified are wealth and control over jobs, competence, expert knowledge, control of

•  They contended that the key difference in information, organizational capacity, control of definitions of social justice rests on whether instruments of force, and occupation of certain scholars include  internal or psychological social positions.  And, Mejiuni (2013) added resources (for example, psychological health,

“participation as equals in decision making critical thinking, and/or awareness) in the processes” to the list of power resources.

definition  alongside the typical external socio-political resources (for example, economic,

The role of policies and laws in ensuring

legal, political rights).

social justice

•  Citing Adams et al. (1997), Sumner (2011) Many scholars, theorists and activists will quickly said social justice includes an  equitable vision point to the role of policies (governmental or of society, one in which “all members are organizational/institutional positions, strategies, physically and psychologically safe and secure”

and course of action, which also stipulate (p. 64).

structures for their implementation and usually backed by a legal framework) and laws in ensuring

Solutions to social injustice

social justice. Let us take a few examples.

•  Theorists, scholars, policy makers, practi-

•  The United Nations (UN) has been in the tioners and activists who are concerned

forefront of nudging member states to secure about social justice, address the concern the rights of their citizens, promote inclusion, from the dimensions earlier identified;

and non-discriminatory policies in regard to that is, difference/diversity, identity and the education and health of children, women, egalitarianism.  These dimensions interface persons with disabilities and indigenous

and are, at times, different stages/phases of peoples; their employment; and stemming

the problem.

the tide of violence against these groups.

•  The solutions either address or do not

•  In the US, there are laws protecting persons address (enough) historical injustice and against discrimination on the basis of race

40     Women, Gender Relations and Social Justice: Teaching, Learning and Identity Politics and gender in workplaces; Title VII of the the 1st Session of the 8th National Assembly Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Title VII), prohibits refused to domesticate the Convention on the employment discrimination based on race,

Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination color, religion, gender, or national origin.

Against Women (CEDAW) or pass laws

•  The Equal Pay Act of 1963 (EPA), protects protecting women’s rights broadly (rejecting men and women who perform substantially

the Gender and Equal Opportunities Bill in equal work in the same establishment from March 2016), the Violence Against Persons gender-based wage discrimination.

(Prohibition) Act (VAPP) was passed into law in May, 2015.

•  The Age Discrimination in Employment Act

•  In rule-governed societies, policies and laws of 1967 (ADEA), protects individuals who are ought to work for social justice.  But even in 40 years of age or older.

those societies, negative attitudes to ‘others’

•  Title I and Title V of the Americans with and prejudices remain fossilized in many

Disabilities Act of 1990, as amended (ADA), minds and institutions.

prohibit employment discrimination against

•  For instance, the perception that the recent qualified individuals with disabilities in killing of Black persons in the US was racially the private sector, and in state and local motivated, led to the huge protests against governments.  Sections 501 and 505 of

the killing of Black persons in American cities, the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, prohibit

leading to the ‘Black Lives Matter’ movement.

discrimination against qualified individuals Also, the allegations of sexual abuse that with disabilities who work in the federal were brought up by women against the then government.

candidate Mr Trump after the ‘access of

•  Title II of the Genetic Information

Hollywood’ tape was made public, also fed Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) of 2008,

the #metoo movement, resulting in series of prohibits employment discrimination based allegations of sexual abuse, misconduct and on genetic information about an applicant, impropriety, being brought against public employee, or former employee; and the Civil officers and rich business men.  Some of them Rights Act of 1991, among other things,

have had to resign their positions or were provides monetary damages in cases of

forced to do so.

intentional employment discrimination.

•  So in spite of policies and laws against

•  In Nigeria, the Federal Character Commission is discriminatory practices, negative attitudes the agency that is charged with addressing the and prejudices remain.  One then wonders, issue of balanced employment opportunities is it that attitudes lag behind the laws, where for Nigerians of different ethnic backgrounds they exist?  Why do discriminatory practices in Federal Government establishments.

persist in spite of the policy and legal measures for addressing discriminatory practices?

•  Nigeria has the National Gender Policy (2006) which is premised on the principles

Policies that promote difference alone

of commitment to gender mainstreaming

or singular identities can go wrong

as a development approach; recognition of

•  Plakhotnik and Delgado (2008), in reviewing gender issues as central to and critical to the Sen’s (2006) book entitled  Identity and achievement of national development goals violence: The illusion of destiny, wrote that Sen and objectives; and promotion and protection warns against the reduction of affiliations to a of human rights, social justice and equity, singular identity and a redefinition of identity among others.

into a bellicose term.

•  Nigeria also has a Child’s Rights Act (CRA), which

•  Sen also questions plural monoculturalism, is yet to be domesticated by all states.  Although which is often now referred to as

Cent[e]ring and Decent[e]ring Gender     41

multiculturalism (where different groups

gender at the centre of policies, laws, budgets, co-exist but do not mix), overemphasizing planning, research and practice is not just difference.

necessary, it is central to the achievement of social

•  He indicates that persons could honour their justice, empowerment and development.

identity, and yet “open up to see others and To Centre Gender …

ourselves beyond singular categorizations

•  Is to acknowledge the specific features that that are often polarizing.  It involves opening differentiate the bodies of women from the up to the idea that we have more in common bodies of men, and also accept that in reality, than we would like to believe” (Plakhotnik &

the characteristics ascribed to women and Delgado, 2008, p. 341).

men have become  second nature.   To centre

•  Others suggest critical multiculturalism, gender is therefore to account for the practical which are forms of multicultural (education) implications of the reality of gender identity.

that challenge systemic discrimination; that

•  Is to recognize and acknowledge that although is, challenge power relations based on social gender is a construction, the persons women structures of race or culture, gender, class, and men become or are expected to become

etc. (Tisdell, 2005).

as a result of the process of ‘cooking’ is real in the hearts and minds of persons.

From the points of view of difference

and identity, or difference and

•  Is an acknowledgement that although

sameness, it is possible to forge ahead

the assumptions society makes and the

with workable social justice initiatives

expectations each society has of women and

•  In the literature, it is thought that the men, their interests and needs, the roles they corollaries of fair treatment and fair share are expected to play, the responsibilities they of rights/benefits are fair and just share of are expected to take on, are, in fact, habitus, responsibilities and burdens.

second nature, they [those assumptions,

•  State actors, persons in leadership positions expectations, interests, …]  have shaped and positions of influence (such as those behaviours, actions, knowledge production and who work in cultural institutions, including dissemination, and they powerfully impact the educational institutions), have a responsibility well being of women and men in the private to ensure social justice, whether or not they and public spheres.

have been affected by social injustice.

•  Is to acknowledge the position that women

•  Similarly, those whose interests are being and men occupy in the  continuum of power and protected by measures aimed at redressing how unequal power relationships disadvantage social injustice have a responsibility and a the two sexes differently.

burden to protect persons who belong to

•  Is recognizing and acknowledging women other minority groups, who are being unfairly and men’s  differential access to resources, treated or could be unfairly treated.

rights, privileges and opportunities.

•  This is where attention to critical multi-

•  Is to recognize and acknowledge  the roles of culturalism and informal learning are key.

culture, religion, the socialization process, informal learning, and the old and new media Cent[e]ring Gender: Difference and

in shaping the identities of persons especially Diversity as Assets, Strengths and

women and their contexts.

Opportunities

•  Is to recognize the differences in women This topic should help us to think of the and men’s biology, the differences in social implications for development and wellbeing, of roles and responsibilities, differences in focusing on ‘gender’ as a category;  that putting

42     Women, Gender Relations and Social Justice: Teaching, Learning and Identity Politics assumptions and expectations, differences Decent[e]ring Gender: Rethinking

in needs and interests and  the implications Difference and Diversity as Sources

for women’s economic participation, women’s of Discriminatory Practices

health, women’s political participation, When women and men were asked whether

violence against women (VAW),  policies and they would vote for a woman who is contesting laws, development planning, formal workforce for governorship/presidency or head of a group participation, etc.

with female and male members, a semi-literate/

•  Is to recognize how the real  biological/

illiterate woman, Oreoluwa, wondered why men physiological differences between women thought women could not do what they could do, and men, and women and men’s features/

and she added:

characteristics that are  second nature are After all, there is no special role for the thought of in the negative and or the positive.

penis in those jobs, and some women    even The preceding is our attempt to explore the attain higher than men (Mejiuni, 2013, p.

implications for development and wellbeing, of 24).

focusing on ‘gender’ as a category.  Exercise 5.2

Women and men were asked this question

below, should support our examination of the among others, in Mejiuni’s study, which explored

[probable] positive features/characteristics of the processes through which formal education, the biology/physiology of women and men (the especially higher education; religious teachings uniqueness of both sexes), and the [probable]

and practices; and informal learning construct positive features/characteristics of the traits …

Nigerian women’s identities; and the implications women and men exhibit, that are actually  second

of the resulting identities for women’s civic-

nature.

political participation, their experience of violence and their capacity to resist violence.

EXERCISE 5.2

To Decentre Gender

Features, characteristics, traits, feelings,

•  To decentre is to displace from the centre sensibilities, knowledge systems, beliefs, or from a central position.  To decentre is to and norms about gender that are assets, break down into separate parts, in order to strengths and opportunities

understand its meaning differently, from how Question 1:

it was previously understood.

•  In the context of the foregoing, what would

•  For our subject of interest, gender identity

‘gender blind’, ‘ gender neutral’ and ‘ gender is to be decentered, so that neither nature sensitivity/insensitivity’ mean?  Cite specific nor society confers identity.  This means our practices, processes, laws and policies from reproductive organs and hormones would not your environment that exemplify these

confer identity or essence or make us who terms.

we are, just as our  second nature (including Question 2:

societal assumptions and expectations, and

•  Read Mejiuni (2013).  Women and power: also ascribed roles and responsibilities) would Education, religion and identity (pp. 251-not confer identity.

253 & pp. 258-259).  Write out the features

•  This is because, according to Calhoun

attributed to women or that women attributed (1994), cited in Mejiuni (2005, p. 295),

to themselves that you would consider a

deconstructionists hold that “there is no strength, an asset/a positive trait or an categorical truth in unmediated nature,

opportunity to empower the self and others.

Cent[e]ring and Decent[e]ring Gender     43

neither is there an absolute truth in the 3. Consider an anecdote: The case of the

mediation of society.”

university professor who said the most

•  However, even those who believe that

qualified candidate for a faculty position gender identity is to be deconstructed, also is not suitable because she may have to

make strategic claims to certain identities.

take ‘bed rest’ every time she is pregnant.

Resistance-postmodernists for example,

What does this mean for social justice?

would see the deconstruction and reclaiming 4. Discuss the position men and women

of various aspects of one’s individual and take that women of childbearing age and

group-based identities as an important part of women with young children should not

challenging power relations.

participate in party political activities

•

5.  What does the belief that women are

Yet, others want to go beyond single,

objects of desire mean for social justice?

categorical identities, and reckon  the connections between social structures and 6.  Discuss how women’s bodies are thought individual identity, and how social structures of in different cultures, in beauty pageants, of race, gender, class, religion, national origin, and the beauty industry.

and sexuality inform our identities.

7.  Examine: the objectification of women in hip hop/rhythm and poetry (RAP) music;

•  One of the key reasons for deconstructing women’s involvement in hip hop music

identities, and in our case deconstructing and their seeming self-objectification; and gender identities, is to ensure that women’s hip hop feminism.

identities, their collective identities  and the way women are different from men (even

References and Further Reading

though women are not a  homogenous group) Calhoun, C. (1994). Social theory and the politics do not become sources of discriminatory

of identity. In C. Calhoun (Ed.),  Social Theory practices.

and the Politics of Identity ( pp. 9-36). Oxford:

•  Women’s biology/physiology should not become Blackwell.

the sources or reasons for discriminating against Federal Ministry of Women Affairs and Social women.

Development (2006).  Nigeria national

•  Societal assumptions and expectations, and the gender policy Federal Republic of Nigeria: roles and responsibilities ascribed to women Situation analysis/Framework.  Abuja: Federal should not become sources of discrimination Government of Nigeria.

against women.

Flores, M. P., De La Rue1, L., Neville, H. A. …

Ginsburg, R. (2014). Developing social justice

•  A few illustrations are in order:

competencies: A consultation training approach.

1.  Let us examine Oreoluwa’s position, which The Counseling Psychologist,  42(7) 998-1020.

serves to counter biological determinism

Govender, P. (2007).  Love and courage: A story 2.  Examine the issue of pregnancy (and child of insubordination. Auckland Park, SA: care) at the work place or while seeking

JacanaMedia (Pty) Ltd.

employment; how do persons handle the

Harris, J., & White, V. (2013).  Oxford dictionary biological fact of pregnancy and the issues of social work and social care. Oxford: Oxford that arise there from in workplaces?

University Press.

Consider surrogacy? Delay giving birth to Hill, R. J.  (2005).   Difference. In L. M. English (Ed.), children or even abstain? Grant paternity International encyclopedia of adult education leave to men or parental leave to both

(pp. 189-192). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

women and men?  Revisit the practice of

Kucukaydin, I. (2010). Counter-learning under wet nursing (practiced centuries back),

oppression.  Adult Education Quarterly, 60(3), etc.?

215-231.

44     Women, Gender Relations and Social Justice: Teaching, Learning and Identity Politics Marshall, G. (1998).  Oxford dictionary of sociology.

for struggle, resistance, and transformation.

Oxford: Oxford University Press.

The Counseling Psychologist,  43(1), 157-169.

Mejiuni, O. (2013).  Women and power: Education, Plakhotnik, M. S., & Delgado, A. (2008). Book religion and identity. Dakar: Council for the Review: Identity and violence: The illusion of Development of Social Science Research in destiny, by A. Sen, New York: Norton, 2006, Africa (CODESRIA).

… pp.  Adult Education Quarterly,  58(4), 337-Mejiuni, O., & Obilade, O. O. (2004). No pains, no 342. DOI: 10.1177/0741713608318895

gains: Exploring the dimensions of power in Sumner, J. (2011). Serving social justice: The role poverty reduction, through transformational of the commons in sustainable food systems.

learning.  In J. Preece  (Ed.),  Adult education Studies in Social Justice,  5(1), 63-75

and poverty reduction: A global priority (pp.

Tisdell, E. J. (2005). Critical multiculturalism. In 240-245). Gaborone: Department of Adult

L. M. English (Ed.),  International encyclopedia Education, University of Botswana. Retrieved of adult education (pp. 162-165). New York: from  http://www.gla.ac.uk/centres/cradall/

Palgrave Macmillan.

docs/Botswana-papers/mejiunifinal_53.pdf

Wiley, N. (1994). The politics of identity in Mennel, S. (1994). The Formation of we-images: American history.  In C. Calhoun (Ed.),  Social A process theory. In C.  Calhoun (Ed.),  Social theory and the politics of identity (pp. 131-theory and the politics of identity (pp. 175-149). Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.

197).  Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.

Neville, H. A. (2015). Social justice mentoring: Supporting the development of future leaders

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